STOC 


LIVE   STOCK   AND    FARM    MECHANICS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON    •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


LIVE    STOCK 

AND 

FARM    MECHANICS 


BY 

JOHN    H.    GEHRS,    B.S.,    M.S., 

HEAD    OF    DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE    SOUTHEAST    MISSOURI    STATE    TEACHERS 
COLLEGE,    CAPE     GIRARDEAU,     MISSOURI,     JOINT    AUTHOR     OF    LABORATORY 
MANUAL    ENTITLED    "  ONE    HUNDRED    EXERCISES    IN    AGRICULTURE" 
AND  AUTHOR  OF  THE  COMPANION   BOOK,   "  THE   PRINCIPLES 
OF    AGRICULTURE    FOR    HIGH    SCHOOLS,"    AND    AU- 
THOR    OF     "  PRODUCTIVE     AGRICULTURE  " 


Nefo  gotfc 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1922 

All  rights  reserved 


PRINTED   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA 


4- 


COPYRIGHT,  1917,  1922, 
BY  THE    MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotypcd.     Published  May,  1922. 


Xortoooti 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

NEW  subject  matter  is  constantly  being  added  to  Agriculture. 
Since  so  many  boys  and  girls  go  no  farther  than  the  grades,  and 
since  Agriculture  should  function  in  the  lives  of  these  boys  and 
girls,  it  has  been  the  pleasure  of  the  author  to  bring  much  of 
this  new  material  to  them  in  this  book. 

Important  subject  matter  relating  to  the  use  of  concrete,  to 
road  construction,  rope  tying,  farm  buildings,  farm  home  con- 
veniences, farm  machinery,  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  efficient 
marketing  and  factors  essential  to  success  in  farming,  and  the 
new  material  relating  to  live  stock  and  the  live  stock  situation  of 
the  world  have  been  treated  in  this  book. 

The  laboratory  exercises  and  home  projects,  suggested  at  the 
close  of  each  chapter,  constitute  a  very  important  part  of  the 
course.  These  laboratory  exercises  should  be  performed  and 
written  up  in  a  regularly  kept  notebook.  Each  exercise  should 
be  written  out  under  the  following  headings  : 

1.  Object 

2.  Materials  used  . 

3.  Procedure 

4.  Conclusion 

Some  exercises  may  be  followed  with  application  questions. 

The  chapter  dealing  with  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  should  be 
read  early  in  the  course,  so  that  club  work  may  be  begun  at  the 
proper  time. 

Throughout  the  entire  study  of  Agriculture  there  are  some 
things  which  should  be  made.  Among  these  are  the  follow- 

492044 


vi  PREFACE 

ing:    self-feeders,  miniature  barns  for  various  farm  animals, 
egg  nests,  doors,  gates,  and  various  things  made  of  concrete. 

Whole  literary  programs  may  occasionally  be  given  on  topics 
relating  to  Agriculture.  The  members  of  the  class  studying 
Agriculture  should  debate  some  question  relating  to  this  sub- 
ject at  least  once  a  month.  At  the  close  of  this  text  there  are 
twenty  suggested  topics  for  debate.  It  is  surprising  how  chil- 
dren will  improve  in  debating  through  three  or  four  months' 
practice. 

Credit  is  due  Miss  Lillian  Brucher,  head  of  the  Home 
Economics  Department  of  the  Southeast  Missouri  State 
Teachers  College,  Cape  Girardeau,  Missouri,  for  writing  the 
chapter  on  farm  home  conveniences;  Prof.  R.  H.  Ember  son, 
in  charge  of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  University  of  Missouri,  for 
writing  the  chapter  on  boys'  and  girls'  club  work ;  Prof.  Jeptha 
Riggs,  Professor  of  English  of  the  Southeast  Missouri  State 
Teachers  College,  Cape  Girardeau,  Missouri,  for  reading  the 
entire  manuscript;  and  to  President  Joseph  A.  Serena  of  the 
Southeast  Missouri  State  Teachers  College  for  many  valuable 
suggestions  given. 

Further  acknowledgments  are  due  to  the  Portland  Cement 
Company  for  permission  to  use  Figures  90,  91,  and  93 ;  to  the 
South  Dakota  Station  for  Figure  142  ;  to  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  for  Figures  149  and  150;  and  to  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  for  Figures  i,  6,  92,  96,  and  98;  and 
to  McGraw-Hill  Publishing  Company  for  illustrations  in  Chap- 
ter XV. 

JOHN  H.  GEHRS. 

SOUTHEAST  MISSOURI  STATE  TEACHERS  COLLEGE, 
CAPE  GIRARDEAU,  MISSOURI, 
February  2,  1922. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
LIVE  STOCK 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  ADVANTAGES  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY         ...        .    »;>•  ,     3 

II.  IMPROVEMENT  OF  FARM  ANIMALS       ...        .        .      14 

III.  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS .26 

IV.  THE  HORSE         .        .        .        .        .        .        ...      38 

V.  BEEF  CATTLE       .' 68 

VI.  DAIRY  CATTLE     .        .  ,"r  .        .        .        .                .87 

VII.  SWINE  PRODUCTION     *  / 126 

VIII.  SHEEP  PRODUCTION      .  .  .        .-.'••'      .        .        .     145 

IX.  POULTRY      .        .        .  .  .        .        .'      .        .        .158 

X.  MARKETING  LIVE  STOCK  .  .        .        .        .        .     197 

PART   II 
FARM   MECHANICS   AND   FARM   MANAGEMENT 

XI.  USE  OF  CONCRETE 213 

XII.  CONCRETE  STRUCTURES .225 

XIII.  ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  ........     236 

XIV.  ROPE  WORK         .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .247 

XV.  FARM  HOME  CONVENIENCES 259 

XVI.    FARM  MACHINERY .        .276 

XVII.    SOME  ESSENTIAL  MACHINES 284 

XVIII.    FARM  BUILDINGS          ........    299 

XIX.    BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  CLUB  WORK 313 

vii 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

XX. 

CHOOSING  A  FARM 

•>  '       .        • 

PAGE 

•        331 

XXI. 

PLANNING  THE  FARM 

!  .          .                    .          .  '        .     • 

•     340 

XXII. 

FARM  BOOKKEEPING 

. 

.     348 

XXIII. 

FARM  LABOR 

.          . 

•     355 

XXIV. 

EFFICIENT  MARKETING  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS 

.         .366 

XXV. 

CARDINAL  POINTS  IN 

MAKING  THE  FARM  PAY  . 

•     375 

TWENTY  QUESTIONS 

FOR  DEBATE       ...       .        .   v 

.     384 

BIBLIOGRAPHY      . 

. 

•     387 

INDEX  . 

.180 

PART  ONE 
LIVE  STOCK 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

CHAPTER  I 
ADVANTAGES  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

THE  virgin  soils  of  our  land  have  been  exploited  and  robbed 
of  their  plant  nutrients  to  such  an  extent  that  Conservation  of 
Soil  Fertility  Congresses,  our  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi- 
ment Stations,  the  United  States  Government  itself,  and  all 
informed  farmers  have  turned  their  thoughts  and  efforts  to  farm 
practices  that  will  prevent  the  further  exhaustion  of  our  soils. 
One  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  convey  the  notion  that  animal 
husbandry  is  a  way  of  maintaining  soil  fertility.  There  are 
also  many  other  farm  practices  which  help  to  conserve  our  soils, 
increase  our  crop  yields,  and  tend  to  make  our  people  happy 
and  prosperous,  and  are  conducive  to  permanent  agriculture. 

The  main  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  indicate  how  animals 
tend  to  make  American  agriculture  more  permanent.  Some  of  the 
benefits  which  may  accrue  from  animal  husbandry  farming  and 
which  make  our  agriculture  more  permanent,  are  the  following : 

1.  Animals  aid  in  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

2.  Stock  farming  tends  to  a  better  system  of  crop  rotation. 

3.  Feeds  that  otherwise  would  be  partially  wasted  are  utilized. 

4.  Animals   manufacture   raw   materials   into   a   marketable 
product. 

5.  Stock  farming  gives  more  constant  employment. 

6.  Stock  farming  often  increases  the  profits. 

7.  The  leading  nations  in  their  periods  of  greatest  prosperity 
have  been  producers  of  animals. 

3 


4     .   ....  ...LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


8.  Animal  husbandry  tends  toward  a  progressive  agriculture 
and  more  intelligent  farming. 

These  topics  will  be  discussed  in  the  order  named. 

Animals  aid  in  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  —  Every 
schoolboy  or  schoolgirl  or  farmer  who  reads  this  knows  that 
constant  cropping  and  selling  the  crops  tend  to  make  the  soil 
less  productive  from  year  to  year.  Grain  and  hay  crops,  if 
sold  from  the  farm,  remove  plant  foods  as  follows : 


FERTILIZING 

CONSTITUENTS 

IN  ONE  TON 

FERTILITY 

MANURIAL 

CROP 

VALUE 

VALUE  PER 

Nitrogen, 

Phosphoric 

Potash, 

PER  TON 

TON 

Pounds 

Acid,  Pounds 

Pounds 

Dent  corn  (grain) 

32.4 

13-8 

8.0 

$  6.85 

$   5.48 

Wheat   .... 

39-6 

17.2 

10.6 

8.83 

6-74 

Oats  

3Q.6 

16.2 

II.  2 

8.42 

6.74. 

Timothy  hay  .     . 

o  v  w 

19.9 

6.2 

27.2 

5-20 

v     /  *T 

4.16 

Red  clover  hay    . 

41.0 

7.8 

32-6 

9-36 

749 

Oat  straw  .     .     . 

n.6 

4.2 

30.0 

3.78 

3.02 

Corn  silage      .     . 

6.8 

3-2 

8.8 

1.81 

1-45 

Cottonseed  meal, 

choice     .     .     . 

141.2 

53-4 

36-2 

29.63 

23.70 

From  this  table  it  will  be  observed  that  if  two  thousand  pounds 
of  dent  corn  be  taken  from  a  farm,  32.4  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
13.8  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  8.0  pounds  of  potash  are  taken 
from  the  soil.  These  ingredients  sell  at  an  average  of  18.0,  4.5, 
and  5.0  cents  per  pound,  respectively,  when  purchased  in  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  At  this  rate  a  ton  of  corn  removes  $6.85 
worth  of  soil  fertility.  It  has  been  found  by  experimentation 
that,  when  feed  is  fed  the  average  animal,  80  per  cent  of  the 
food  nutrients  in  the  feed  are  voided  in  the  manurial  product. 
The  manurial  value  given  in  the  last  column  of  the  above  table 
is  in  each  case  80  per  cent  of  the  fertility  value  of  the  food  named. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


The  manurial  value  of  feed  stuffs  varies,  as  the  table  indicates,  with 
the  composition  of  feeding  stuffs.  The  table  deserves  close  study. 
When  animals  or  animal  products  are  taken  from  the  farm, 
much  less  fertility  is  removed ;  and  especially  is  this  true  when 
the  fertility  value  of  the  feed  out  .of  which  the  finished  product 
is  made  is  compared  to  the  animal  product  sold.  This  par- 
ticular point  is  too  difficult  to  present  here.  However,  the 
fertilizing  constituents  of  a  few  animal  products  are  as  follows : 


FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  PER  TON 

FERTILITY 

MANURIAL 

VALUE  PER 

VALUE  PER 

Nitrogen, 

Phosphoric 

Potash, 

TON 

TON 

Pounds 

Acid,  Pounds 

Pounds 

Fat  pig      .    ,    . 

354 

13.0 

2.8 

$7.10 

Fat  ox  .     .     .     . 

46.6 

31.0 

2.6 

9.96 

Milk      .... 

n.6 

4.0 

3-4 

2-43 

$1-94 

Butter  .... 

2.4 

0.8 

0.8 

•51 

Compare  this  table  with  the  preceding  one.  A  ton  of  pigs 
remove  $7.10  worth  of  fertility  and  dent  corn  $6.85  of  fertility. 
When  the  fact  is  known  that  it  requires  from  five  to  six  tons  of 
corn  to  make  one  ton  of  pork,  and  that  80  per  cent  of  its  ferti- 
lizing value  is  returned  to  the  soil,  we  may  conclude  that  animal 
husbandry  tends  to  maintain  soil  fertility.  It  has  been  summed 
up  thus :  "  A  farmer  selling  hay  sells  in  the  form  of  fertilizer 
value,  one-half  as  much  as  he  receives ;  if  he  sells  pork,  he  re- 
ceives twenty  times  as  much  for  it  as  the  value  of  the  fertilizers 
contained  in  it ;  if  milk,  forty  times ;  and  if  butter,  one  thou- 
sand times."  x 

See  the  following  chapters,  and  especially  the  chapters  on 
dairy  cattle,  swine  production,  and  sheep  production,  on  the 
relation  of  animal  husbandry  to  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility. 

1  Burkett;  "  Feeding  Farm  Animals." 


6  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

Stock  farming  tends  to  a  better  system  of  crop  rotation.  — 
Where  grain  farming  is  practiced,  only  one  or  two  crops  are 
usually  produced.  Such  a  practice  caused  our  soils  to  become 
less  productive.  The  United  States  Yearbooks  clearly  indicate 
that  the  acreage  yields  of  the  leading  American  farm  crops  be- 
came less  and  less  up  to  about  1900,  and  from  then  on  our  acre- 
age yields  have  been  gradually  increasing.  The  increase  in 
crop  yields  the  last  fifteen  years  has  been  due  to  better  methods 
of  seed  selection,  seed  testing,  better  methods  of  cultivation, 
rotation  of  crops,  and  other  modern  farm  practices.  The  de- 
crease in  acreage  yields  previous  to  1900  was  due  to  a  system  of 
grain  farming  in  which  only  one  or  two  kinds  of  crops  were  pro- 
duced, sold  off  the  farm,  and  nothing  returned. 

In  any  kind  of  stock  production  a  liberal  use  of  pasture  crops 
makes  for  cheap  gains.  The  liberal  use  of  the  leguminous  crops 
in  pork,  mutton,  beef,  and  milk  production,  taking  one  year 
with  another,  cheapens  production.  Many  farmers  are  begin- 
ning to  realize  that  it  is  expensive  to  import  feeds.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  farmers  are  studying  and  planning  how  they 
may  grow  crops,  so  that  they  will  have  a  well-balanced  feed,  and 
at  the  same  time  not  deplete  the  soil.  The  solution  of  this  prob- 
lem is  a  proper  balance  of  grain  crops  to  furnish  the  carbo- 
hydrate material,  and  the  growing  of  clovers,  alfalfa,  soybeans, 
and  cowpeas,  which  furnish  the  protein  of  the  feed.  The  latter 
crops  tend  to  balance  the  grain  ration,  and  at  the  same  time 
restore  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 

Feeds  that  otherwise  would  be  partially  wasted  are  uti- 
lized.— The  grass  that  grows  along  streams,  fences,  and  roadways 
would  be  lost  if  not  consumed  by  grazing  animals.  Much  land 
that  cannot  be  tilled  profitably  is  used  as  grazing  land.  Corn 
fields,  where  the  ears  have  been  gathered,  furnish  a  great  deal  of 
roughness  for  a  month  or  more  to  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses. 


ADVANTAGES   OF  ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY 


Straw  stacks  and  the  grasses  and  weeds  in  stubble  fields  will  pro- 
duce a  fine  product.  The  screenings  at  threshing  time  furnish 
excellent  feed  for  poultry.  A  small  flock  of  sheep  is  kept  on 
many  farms  simply  as  plant  scavengers.  The  large  quantity  of 
weeds  they  consume  is  transformed  into  wool  and  mutton. 
Goats,  in  many  sections,  help  greatly  in  ridding  pastures  of 
sprouts  and  weeds.  There  are  very  few  sprouts  goats  will  not 
eat.  Their  services  in  renovating  pastures  may  often  be  worth 
from  50  cents  to  $i  per  acre.  Turkeys  roam  over  pastures  and 
fields,  eating  grasshoppers  and  other  insects.  The  dairy,  the 
garden,  the  orchard,  the  field,  and  the  roadside  provide  feeds 
which,  if  utilized,  may  bring  a  fair  income  and  change  the  farm 
operation  from  a  losing  one  to  a  profitable  one.  The  small  odds 
and  ends  utilized  by  animals  may  mean  the  difference  between 
success  and  failure,  for  to  a  considerable  extent  the  profits  thus 
secured  are  almost  pure  profits. 

Animals  manufacture  raw  materials  into  a  marketable 
product.  —  The  animal  is  a  manufacturer.  Not  only  are  the 
cheap  feed  stuffs  thus  utilized,  but  the  corn,  silage,  hays,  bran, 
cottonseed  meal,  and  various  other  crops  and  their  by-products 
are  used  by  animals,  and  converted  into  salable  products.  The 
following  facts  in  a  general  way  indicate  the  manufacturing 
capacity  of  various  farm  animals  : 


ANIMAL 

FEED 

AMOUNT  OF  PRODUCT 
PRODUCED 

APPROXIMATE 
VALUE 

Dairy  cow     .     . 

Corn   silage   30   lb., 

25  lb.  milk,  test  4.0% 

alfalfa  10  lb.,  corn 

or  one  pound  but- 

35  cents 

6  lb.,  bran  2   lb., 

terfat 

water  75  lb. 

Swine  .... 

5-6  lb.  corn 

One  pound  pork 

7-^  cents 

Sheep  .... 

8-9  lb.  corn 

One  pound  mutton 

7-J  cents 

Steer    .... 

lo-n  lb.  corn 

One  pound  beef 

7-J-  cents 

8  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

It  should  not  be  concluded  from  this  table  that  one  kind  of 
animal  produces  meat  more  economically  than  others.  The 
table  is  not  recorded  for  that  purpose.  The  table  simply  in- 
dicates that  animals  are  manufacturers.  When  the  fact  is  re- 
called that  sheep  consume  feeds  that  hogs  will  not  use,  the  con- 
clusion may  be  drawn  that  sheep  are  the  most  profitable  of  all 
the  animals,  under  certain  conditions. 

The  raw  products  cannot  always  be  shipped  to  market  profit- 
ably. For  illustration,  the  dairy  cow  utilizes  about  48  pounds 
of  feed  stuffs  to  manufacture  one  pound  of  butter.  The  raw 
materials  have  a  low  selling  value  per  pound,  but  a  pound  of 
butter  may  sell  for  35  cents  per  pound.  The  freight  charges  in 
transporting  the  raw  materials  would  be  extremely  costly  in 
proportion  to  the  value  of  the  product  sent ;  while  the  finished 
product  can  be  shipped  at  a  comparatively  low  cost.  Animals 
hold  an  important  relation  to  permanent  agriculture  because 
they  are  manufacturers. 

Stock  farming  gives  more  constant  employment.  —  It  tends 
to  distribute  labor.  In  grain  farming  all  the  labor  is  demanded 
in  a  short  period.  Stock  farming  causes  a  diversity  of  crops  to 
be  grown,  and  this  of  itself  causes  a  more  even  distribution  of 
labor,  and  stock  always  need  attention.  All  the  labor  in  connec- 
tion with  timothy  hay  comes  in  about  one  month,  or  one  twelfth 
of  the  entire  year.  Generally  speaking,  men  get  paid  according 
to  the  time  they  work;  one  twelfth  time,  one  twelfth  pay. 
Read  the  chapter  on  farm  labor.  Our  agriculture  will  not  be 
nearly  so  permanent  until  the  labor  on  the  farm  becomes  more 
constant.  Stock  farming  tends  to  give  constant  employment. 

Stock  farming  often  increases  the  profits.  —  This  is  espe- 
cially true  where  young  stock,  stock  of  the  proper  conformation, 
quality,  and  disposition,  are  used,  and  where  the  farmer  knows 
how  to  secure  economic  gains  from  them.  Bankers  seldom  turn 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  9 

down  a  loan  on  young  growing  stock,  especially  if  it  is  of  the 
right  kind. 

The  leading  nations  in  their  periods  of  greatest  prosperity 
have  been  producers  of  animals.  —  The  nations  which  are  the 
leading  and  most  progressive  have  been  and  are  consumers  of 
large  quantities  of  meat  and  animal  products.  They  likewise 


FIG.  i.  —  The  striking  contrast  here  shown  is  the  best  argument  for  investing  feed  and 
care  where  they  will  pay  best. 

are  consumers  of  vegetable  products.  Those  nations  which 
have  a  low  state  of  civilization  consume  either  meats  alone  or 
vegetable  products  alone.  The  barbarian  uses  either  an  entire 
meat  diet  or  an  entire  grain  diet.  The  nations  that  consume 
either  exclusively  are  usually  in  a  low  state  of  civilization.  We 
need  to  refer  only  to  China  and  Russia  to  illustrate  this  point. 
The  Romans,  Greeks,  and  Hebrews  consumed  meat  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  From  the  first  two  races  we  received  much 


io  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

in  the  way  of  laws  and  literature;  from  the  Hebrews  we  re- 
ceived the  Old  and  the  New  Testament,  and  Christianity.  The 
Teutonic  race,  comprising  the  peoples  of  England,  Germany, 
and  America,  contributed  the  democratic  system  of  govern- 
ment, —  all  are  and  were  liberal  meat  eaters. 

Even  the  states  of  the  United  States  that  are  the  most  pro- 
gressive, as  shown  by  their  roads,  schools,  farm  implements, 
and  stock,  are  greater  producers  of  animals  than  are  those 
states  more  backward  along  these  lines.  On  this  point  in  con- 
nection with  dairying,  Professor  Eckles  states  in  "  Dairy  Cattle 
and  Milk  Production"  :  "  If  a  list  were  prepared  of  our  own  states, 
selecting  those  where  the  average  soil  fertility  is  best  conserved, 
the  most  intelligence  found  among  the  people,  it  would  be  a 
list  of  the  leading  dairy  states."  The  American  people  are 
consumers  of  greater  quantities  of  animal  products  per  capita 
than  are  the  people  of  any  other  nation.  And  where  may  a 
superior  people,  both  physically  and  mentally,  be  found  ?  Well- 
developed  men  and  women,  physically  and  mentally,  are  neces- 
sary for  a  permanent  agriculture. 

Animal  husbandry  tends  toward  a  more  progressive  agri- 
culture and  more  intelligent  farming.  —  One  of  the  simplest 
forms  of  agriculture  was  that  practiced  by  the  wandering  shep- 
herds described  in  the  Bible.  The  shepherds  drove  their  flocks 
to  new  pastures.  Scarcely  any  skill  was  required.  The  cow- 
boys of  the  West  in  pioneer  days  needed  little  intelligence  and, 
in  a  way,  exemplify  simple  agriculture.  Tilling  a  one-kind  crop 
from  year  to  year  requires  greater  intelligence,  because  the  use 
of  tools  and  implements  makes  it  a  little  more  complex.  Grow- 
ing two  kinds  of  crops  adds  complexity  to  the  operation,  because 
the  methods  of  soil  preparation,  seeding,  cultivating,  harvesting, 
and  kinds  of  tools  used  vary  somewhat  with  the  two  crops  grown. 
Many  farmers  in  the  "  corn  belt  "  know  how  to  grow  corn  but  do 


n 


12  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

not  understand  how  to  grow  alfalfa.  A  third  kind  of  farming 
that  requires  still  more  skill  and  intelligence  is  a  system  of  grain 
farming,  where  a  rotation  of  crops  is  practiced  and  five  or  six 
different  crops  are  raised.  Rotating  crops,  so  that  the  soil 
fertility  will  be  maintained,  so  that  insects  of  various  crops  are 
combated,  so  that  labor  is  well  distributed,  and  selling  each 
crop  at  such  a  season  that  the  most  is  realized,  is  a  difficult 
system  of  farming  indeed.  But  a  fourth  system  of  farming 
that  is  still  more  complex  is  one  in  which  all  the  good  points  of 
the  third  system  prevail,  and  in  addition  several  different  kinds 
of  animals  are  produced.  In  animal  husbandry  farming,  hous- 
ing, feeding,  care,  and  management,  combating  disease  and 
enemies,  selecting  the  types  and  kinds  of  animals  that  will  prove 
profitable,  —  all  of  these  points  in  connection  with  every  kind  of 
animal  handled  add  greatly  to  the  complexity  of  the  farm 
operations.  Animal  production  requires  additional  skill  for  its 
successful  operation. 

Animal  husbandry  causes  men  to  become  more  sympathetic. 
The  man  who  hammers  steel  from  day  to  day  deals  with  an 
inanimate  thing.  The  producer  of  plants  notices  the  response 
of  the  soil  and  the  plant  to  his  kind  treatment.  But  the  man 
who  handles  sheep,  horses,  cattle,  —  the  shepherd,  the  horse- 
man, the  cattleman,  —  notes  the  instinctive  reaction  of  the 
animal  kindly  treated,  until  the  mental  attitude  of  both  animal 
and  man  are  greatly  improved.  The  dairyman  has  long  since 
learned  that  kind  treatment  brings  economic  returns.  The 
shepherd  well  knows  that  his  voice  is  known  by  every 
sheep.  The  horseman  fully  realizes  that  if  he  commands 
his  horse  intelligently,  the  horse  will  respond  in  like  manner. 
This  intelligent,  harmonious,  responsive  spirit  between  man 
and  animal  are  prerequisites  to  permanent  successful  agricul- 
ture. 


ADVANTAGES   OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  13 

Summary.  —  Animal  husbandry  farming  helps  in  maintaining 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  tends  to  a  better  system  of  crop  rotation, 
utilizes  feeds  that  otherwise  would  be  partially  wasted,  manu- 
factures raw  materials  into  a  marketable  product,  gives  more 
constant  employment,  and  often  increases  profits.  The  leading 
nations  have  been  and  are  producers  and  consumers  of  meat 
and  meat  products,  and  animal  husbandry  promotes  a  pro- 
gressive and  intelligent  agriculture.  Animal  husbandry  farming 
sustains  important  relations  to  the  permanency  of  our  American 
agriculture.  Therefore,  it  behooves  the  schools,  the  farmers,  and 
the  consumers  to  study  the  close  relation  of  animal  husbandry 
to  permanent  agriculture,  in  order  that  here  as  elsewhere  the 
old  saying  that  "  education  is  the  safeguard  of  our  nation  "  may 
be  fully  realized. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Are  there  any  farms  in  your  locality  that  do  not  readily  respond 
to  the  husbandman  ?     If  there  are,  write  in  three  paragraphs  three  reasons 
why  the  soil  does  not  respond   readily.     Make   three   recommendations 
you  would  suggest  to  make  the  soil  more  responsive.     These  three  recom- 
mendations   should    be    written    in    choice    English    and    in    three    well- 
formed  paragraphs. 

2.  Name  ten  products  that  would  be  waste  products  which  may  be 
utilized  either  by  swine,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  or  poultry. 

3.  Do  you  know  of  any  field,   garden,   orchard,   or  pasture  in  which 
insects,  grass,  weeds,  sprouts,  or  other  plants  are  found  which  may  be 
well  utilized  by  some  farm  animal?     What  suggestions  have  you  to  offer 
regarding  their  utilization  ? 


CHAPTER   II 
IMPROVEMENT   OF   FARM   ANIMALS 

Why  improve  farm  animals  ?  —  Horses,  beef  and  dairy  cattle, 
hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry  have  already  been  greatly  improved. 
And  the  average  person  would  hardly  know  what  to  suggest  to 
improve  further  the  best  specimens  of  these  various  animals ; 
but  the  expert  breeder  can  see  how  further  improvement  can 
be  made.  Of  course  we  all  know  that  the  animals  found  on  the 
average  farm  can  be  much  improved. 

Why  improve  farm  animals?  First,  because  animals  with  a 
good  conformation  produce  more  cheaply  than  do  those  without. 
Some  may  say  that  the  razorback  will  produce  meat  as  cheaply 
as  do  the  most  improved  breeds,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  Some 
may  still  think  that  the  Texas  Longhorn  will  produce  meat  more 
cheaply  than  does  the  best  Shorthorn  steer.  Again  there  are 
those  who  say  that  the  native  scrub  cow  will  produce  as  much 
milk  as  the  best  Jersey;  but  no  scrub  ever  has  done  so.  No 
one  has  ever  heard  of  a  scrub  making  a  really  good  record.  The 
records  of  scrubs  are  not  known  and  never  printed.  Some  think 
that  the  assassins  of  our  martyred  presidents  should  never  be 
honored  by  being  named  in  history.  Likewise  the  names  of 
scrub  animals  are  ordinarily  never  mentioned,  because  their 
records  are  not  worthy  of  mention. 

Grading  up  live  stock.  —  The  easiest  and  cheapest  way  to 
improve  ordinary  live  stock  is  to  grade  them  up.  This  is  done 
by  the  use  of  a  pure  bred  sire.  In  grading  up,  if  the  first  offspring 
has  50  per  cent  purity  of  blood,  the  second  will  have  75  per  cent, 

14 


IMPROVEMENT  OF   FARM   ANIMALS  15 

the  third  87.5  per  cent,  and  so  on.  A  high-grade  animal  has  75 
per  cent  or  more  of  the  blood  of  a  definite  breed  in  its  veins.  A 
crossbred  animal  is  the  progeny  of  two  different  breeds  of  animals. 
Thus  we  may  have  a  Hols tein- Jersey  cross. 

Pure  breds.  —  Pure  bred  animals  have  100  per  cent  of  the 
blood  of  a  definite  breed.  They  have  no  blood  or  other  charac- 
teristics from  any  other  source.  Not  all  pure  bred  animals  are 
perfect,  —  in  fact  probably  none  are  perfect,  —  but  many  of 
them  are  85  to  95  per  cent  perfect ;  while  low-grade  animals  are 
much  lower  in  the  scale  of  perfection.  The  best  qualities  that1 
farm  animals  now  possess  come  from  the  blood  of  pure  breds. 

Registered  animals  are  pure  bred  animals  whose  pedigrees  are 
recorded  in  the  herd  book  of  that  breed  of  farm  animals.  A  pedi- 
gree gives  a  brief  biography  of  the  ancestors  of  a  given  animal 
for  several  generations.  On  page  17  is  a  pedigree  of  Hamble- 
tonian  10.  Many  pedigrees  give  more  data  than  this  pedigree. 

There  are  two  terms,  indicative  of  breeding  or  breeding  and 
performance  in  horses,  that  should  be  explained  here  because 
the  student  constantly  meets  them  in  reading  and  study.  They 
are  the  expressions,  "  thoroughbred  "  and  "  standardbred." 

Pure  breeding  in  horses  is  indicated  as  thoroughbred.  This 
term  denotes  the  purest  breed  of  horses,  except  the  Oriental 
from  which  they  are  derived.  They  have  been  bred  for  two  and 
one  half  centuries  with  running  speed  as  the  only  considera- 
tion. They  were  the  first  for  which  pedigree  records  were  kept 
and  a  stud  book  established.  The  term  standardbred  is  applied 
to  horses  bred  from  a  composite  foundation  in  which  the  thorough- 
bred top  cross  figured  most  conspicuously,  the  base  consisting 
of  commonbred  mares  with  well-developed  trotting  ability. 
The  American  road  driver  is  largely  responsible  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  standardbred.  Performance  rather  than  breeding 
has  been  the  standard. 


1 6  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

What  are  the  advantages  of  good  high-grade  or  good  pure 
bred  animals? —  i.  They  will  transmit  their  qualities  or  charac- 
teristics without  great  chance  of  variation.  In  other  words, 
"  like  begets  like."  The  new  generation  is  like  the  preceding 
one,  and  the  one  before,  and  the  one  before  that.  The  daddy 
was  like  his  daddy,  and  his  daddy  was  like  his  daddy,  etc.,  - 
for  many  generations  back.  The  mammy  was  like  her  mammy, 
and  her  mammy  was  like  her  mammy,  etc.,  for  many  generations 
back.  The  daddies  and  the  mammies  belonged  to  the  same 
breed  for  hundreds  of  years.  If  all  the  daddies  and  mammies 
were  alike,  why  should  not  the  offspring  also  possess  the  same 
characteristics  and  qualities? 

2.  Pure  bred  animals  are  adapted  to  a  specific  purpose.     The 
bird  dog  is  good  for  hunting  birds  ;  but  the  rat  terrier  hunts  and 
digs  for  rats  all  day  long.     It  is  fine  that  there  are  horses  for 
pulling  loads,  horses  to  ride,  and  horses  for  the  race.     It  is  fine 
that  there  are  cows  that  will  give  milk  for  many  persons,  and 
others  that  will  produce  a  lot  of  meat  with  a  few  pounds  of  feed. 
This  study  of  pure  bred  animals  being  adapted  to  a  specific  pur- 
pose can  be  continued  indefinitely. 

3.  Pure  bred  animals  produce  more  with  a  given  amount  of 
feed  than  do  scrubs.     Pure  bred  hogs  not  only  will  gain  more 
than  scrubs  with  a  given  amount  of  feed  but  also  will  dress  out 
more  meat.     No  one  has  ever  heard  of  a  scrub  pig,  a  scrub  cow, 
or  a  scrub  chicken  making  a  noteworthy  record;    but  many 
noteworthy  records  have  been  made  by  pure  breds. 

4.  Pure  bred  animals  are  more  attractive,  and  more  pride  is 
taken  in  them.     The  greater  the  care  and  attention  given  them, 
the  better  the  results. 

5.  Pure  bred  animals  sell  for  more  money  than  do  scrubs  or 
grades.     It  is  well  known  that  animals  which  are  uniform  in 
size  and  color  sell  for  more  than  do  those  which  are  not  uniform. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF   FARM   ANIMALS 


PEDIGREE  OF  HAMBLETONIAN  10 


Abdallah  i 
(trotter) 


Mambrino 
(trotter) 


Amazonia 
(trotter) 


Messenger 
(Thorough- 
bred) 


Mare  by 


Son  of 
Messenger 

Unknown 


Mambrino,  by 
Engineer,  by 
Sampson 

Dam  bv  Turf 


f  Sour  Crout 
(Imp.) 


f  Messenger 


Charles  Kent 
mare 


Jery's 
Bellfounder 

(trotter) 


One  Eye 


Bellfounder 
(trotter) 

Unknown 

Bishop's 

Hambletonian 
(trotter) 


Silvertail 


Messenger 
(Imp.) 

Pheasant,  by 
Shark 

Messenger 
(Imp.) 

Black  Jin 
(untraced) 


IMPROVEMENT  OF   FARM  ANIMALS  19 

This  is  true  in  the  ordinary  market ;  and  when  animals  are  sold 
for  breeding  purposes,  registered  animals  with  good  pedigrees 
sell  much  more  easily  and  at  better  prices  than  others. 

For  all  of  the  reasons  stated,  farmers  can  well  afford,  if  they 
do  not  possess  pure  breds,  to  use  at  least  pure  bred  sires.  For 
in  so  doing  they  will  ordinarily  reduce  the  cost  of  production. 


FIG.  4.  —  Note  the  attractiveness  of  this  flock  of  White  Plymouth  Rocks.    They  are 
quite  uniform  in  shape  and  color. 


The  lines  of  live  stock  improvement.  —  Animals  are  im- 
proved along  various  lines.  A  few  of  these  will  be  studied : 

i.  Chickens  are  constantly  being  improved  so  that  they  will 
produce  more  eggs.  The  jungle  fowl  produced  in  a  year  10  or 
12  small  eggs,  which  weighed  in  the  aggregate  from  4  to  8  ounces  ; 
but  the  average  hen  now  produces  about  5  dozen  eggs,  which 
weigh  about  1 20  ounces ;  and  there  are  many  hens  that  produce 
over  200  eggs,  which  have  a  total  weight  of  over  300  ounces. 
The  chapter  on  poultry  explains  how  the  high  producers  may  be 


20  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

detected.  It  is  important  that  we  know  how  to  tell  the 
good  producer  from  the  poor  producer.  A  poor  layer  eats 
much  feed,  but  returns  little  or  nothing  for  the  work,  shelter, 
and  feed  man  so  kindly  provides  for  her. 

2.  The  dairy  cow  is  improved  so  that  she  will  yield  more  milk 
with  a  given  amount  of  feed.  There  are  many  cows  that  do  not 
pay  for  their  keep.  A  cow  producing  200  pounds  of  butterfat 
will  probably  pay  her  board  bill.  Of  course,  she  will  help  to 
keep  some  one  alive.  But  the  farmer  must  have  more  than 


Courtesy  Ginn  and  Co. 


FIG.  5.  —  A  good  producing  cow  produces  enough  milk  to  nourish  a  dozen  to  fifteen  calves. 
The  native  cattle  gave  about  enough  milk  to  nourish  one  small  calf. 

just  a  bare  living.  He  must  produce  a  surplus  and  lay  it  up  for 
a  rainy  day.  The  use  of  good  sires  helps  to  increase  the  milking 
qualities  of  the  next  generation.  For  illustration,  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri  they  had  a  bull  named  Missouri  Rioter  3d. 
Several  cows  bred  to  him  had  14  lactation  periods  and  produced 
on  the  average  4715  pounds  of  milk.  The  daughters  of  these  cows 
had  15  lactation  periods  and  produced  an  average  of  8005  pounds 
of  milk  in  each  lactation  period.  This  was  moving  upward. 

Why  should  not  the  dairyman  select  bulls  which  come  from 
cows  and  sires  that  have  real  producing  ability?     To  improve 


IMPROVEMENT  OF   FARM  ANIMALS 


21 


the  dairy  herd  with  a  good  sire  is  the  easiest,  cheapest,  and  quick- 
est way  to  build  up  the  herd. 

3.  Wool  production  can  also  be  increased.  Sometimes  wool 
is  so  cheap  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  increase  the  output.  But 
if  it  is  desirable  to  increase  the  production  of  wool,  it  can  be  done 
by  the  use  of  a  ram  having  wool-transmitting  qualities.  Laramie, 
a  Rambouillet  ram,  owned  by  the  Agricultural  College  of  Still- 


FIG.  6.  —  A  litter  of  ten  husky  pigs.    Large  litters  lower  the  cost  of  production. 

water,  Oklahoma,  was  sheared  at  the  end  of  15  months  and 
his  fleece  weighed  46  pounds.  A  good  wool  is  kinky,  and  its 
hairs  are  fine  and  of  medium  length.  These  qualities  can  be 
secured  by  breeding  and  selection. 

4.  The  meat-producing  ability  of  animals  can  often  be  im- 
proved, and  thereby  the  cost  of  production  may  be  reduced. 
Accordingly,  at  the  University  of  Missouri  they  found  in  an  ex- 
periment the  following:  "Seventeen  lambs  from  a  pure  bred 
sire  and  Western  ewes  weighed  on  an  average  63  pounds  when 


22  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

three  months  old  and  sold  for  $7.35  per  hundredweight ;  while 
17  lambs  sired  by  a  scrub  ram  weighed  56  pounds  when  four 
months  old  and  sold  for  $4.50  per  hundredweight.  Besides 
this  the  good  lambs  required  less  feed  to  produce  one  hundred 
pounds  of  gain. 

"  There  are  a  great  many  hogs,  sheep,  fowls,  and  beef  cattle 
that  can  be  improved  in  their  meat-producing  ability  by  the  use 
of  a  well-conformed,  good,  pure  bred  sire.  Here  is  one  of  the 
most  fertile  fields  for  making  money.  Good  breeding  pays. 
Poor  breeding  must  be  overcome  by  an  additional  expenditure 
for  feed." 

5.  Speed  is  the  all  important  thing  in  the  horses  used  on  the 
race  course.     Their  form  and  function  go  hand  in  hand.     They 
must  have  such  a  form  that  they  can  excel  in  speed.     Of  course, 
they  must  have  endurance  and  such  a  spirit  and  disposition  that 
they  will  win  in  the  race. 

6.  In  draft  horses,  weight,  conformation,  symmetry,  quality, 
capacity,  temperament,  style,  and  walking  ability  are  emphasized. 
To  secure  all  of  these  qualities  will  require  the  best  thought 
and  judgment  of  the  most  capable  horsemen  of  the  entire  country. 

7.  Often  animals  are  not  prolific  ;  that  is,  they  do  not  produce 
sufficient  offspring.     Large  litters  of  pigs  reduce  the  cost  of 
pork  production.     Small  litters  increase  the  cost  of  pork  pro- 
duction.    Breeds  of  hogs  that  will  persistently  produce  litters 
of  only  two  or  three  pigs  must  soon  give  way  to  a  breed  that  is 
prolific.     The  Poland  China  breed  of  hogs  several  years   ago 
almost  became  extinct  because  it  lacked  prolificacy.     The  breed 
was  changed   and   to-day   it   ranks   very   high   in  popularity. 
Within  reasonable  limits  man  can  by  selection  increase  prolifi- 
cacy in  animals.     This  is  an  important  line  of  animal  improve- 
ment.    Sheep  and  poultry,  as  well  as  all  other  farm  animals, 
can  be  and  must  be  improved  along  this  line. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  23 

A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  TEN  YEARS'  RECORDS  MADE  BY  SOPHIE  IQTH 


POUNDS  MILK  ONE  YEAR 

POUNDS  FAT  ONE  YEAR 

AGE 

12,185.0 

683.20 

15       8 

10,360.9 

566.56 

14      6 

8,688.2 

507.26 

13      o 

15,958.2 

847.87 

ii       9 

11,915.4 

680.49 

9       7 

17,557-8 

999.10 

7     ii 

15,099.4 

931.90 

6       7 

14,373-2 

854.90 

4     ii 

9,924.8 

570.80 

3       8 

7,050.2 

395-90 

2          2 

123,113.1 

7,037.98 

8.  Constitution,  vitality,  endurance,  and  long  years  of  service 
are  important  items  to  remember  in  improving  live  stock.     It 
costs  money  to  raise  a  colt  or  a  calf.     To  raise  a  colt  or  a  calf 
which  lacks  vitality  to  live  a  reasonable  number  of  years  is  very 
expensive.     The  highest  record  of  achievement  for  an  animal 
is  to  live  long  and  produce  much.     Sophie  igth  of  the  Hood 
Farm  has  the  foregoing  record  to  her  credit.     It  shows  constitu- 
tion and  longevity,  and  is  indeed  a  long-distance  record.     Simi- 
lar illustrations  could  be  given  for  other  breeds  of  cows. 

Thus  Sophie  igth  produced  123,113  pounds  of  milk  and 
7038  pounds  of  butterfat.  The  butterfat  test  of  the  milk  is 
secured  by  dividing  the  butterfat  by  the  milk  produced ;  that 
is,  in  this  case  7038  divided  by  123,113,  or  5.72  per  cent.  This 
rule  holds  for  determining  the  test  of  milk  under  all  condi- 
tions. 

9.  Form  in  animals  attracts  the  eye  of  the  most  disinterested 
person.     The  most  beautiful  lines  and  figures  in  nature  are  found 
in  animal  life.     It  is  wonderful  that  man  has  so  perfected  animal 


24  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

form,  yet  there  is  much  to  be  done  in  the  average  herd  before 
perfection  is  attained.  The  breeder  must  have  the  picture  of 
the  perfect  form  in  his  mind.  Then  he  begins  to  combine,  mold, 
and  form  animal  life  so  that  the  ideal  is  more  nearly  approached. 
This  often  requires  a  lifetime,  for  it  is  difficult  to  secure  the  per- 
fect type. 

10.  Color  and  color  markings  and  how  to  secure  and  maintain 
these  markings  engender  more  interest  than  almost  anything 
else  in  animal  improvement.  Every  breed  of  farm  animal  has 
a  most  desirable  color,  and  to  secure  and  maintain  that  color 
is  very  difficult  and  costs  much  energy,  time,  money,  and  anxiety. 
Uniformity  of  color  in  a  herd  almost  guarantees  that  other 
qualities  are  uniform  and  similar.  When  the  color  cannot  be 
controlled,  the  other  qualities  cannot  be  controlled  either.  It 
is  interesting  to  study  the  color  and  color  markings  as  set  forth 
by  the  different  breed  associations.  The  study  of  the  132  varie- 
ties of  fowls  described  and  discussed  in  "  The  Standard  of  Per- 
fection" is  both  interesting  and  informational. 

Community  cooperation  in  the  improvement  of  live  stock.  - 
Often  an  entire  neighborhood  gets  together  on  an  important 
movement ;  and  if  a  real  spirit  of  cooperation  exists,  success  is 
likely  to  be  the  result.  Community  cooperation  may  show  it- 
self in  boys'  pig  clubs,  girls'  poultry  clubs,  and  cow  clubs.  These 
very  organizations  become  the  basis  for  organizations  which 
later  mean  so  much  in  community  development. 

A  good  sire  will  improve  a  breed  of  live  stock,  whereas  a  poor 
sire  may  cause  deterioration  in  the  live  stock  in  an  entire  com- 
munity. Some  counties  are  noted  throughout  the  United  States 
for  a  specific  breed  of  animals ;  and  for  the  fine  stock  they  have. 
These  communities  usually  have  a  good  sale  for  their  surplus 
breeding  stock.  This  results  in  good  money  returns  and  in 
better  homes,  schools,  and  churches. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  25 

Summary.  —  The  lines  of  live  stock  improvement  are  greater 
egg  production,  greater  milk  production,  greater  wool  production, 
greater  prolificacy,  greater  meat  production,  greater  endurance 
and  vitality,  greater  speed,  greater  weight,  a  better  form  and 
more  action  in  draft  horses,  better  color,  and  general  improve- 
ment so  that  the  animals  are  more  efficient  for  the  particular 
purposes  for  which  they  are  produced. 

Pure  bred  animals  are  more  efficient  than  are  scrubs  and 
grades.  Pure  bred  animals  have  some  very  definite  advantages. 
These  advantages  are  :  they  transmit  their  qualities  with  greater 
certainty  ;  they  are  adapted  to  a  specific  purpose  ;  they  produce 
more  with  a  given  amount  of  feed;  they  are  more  attractive; 
and  they  sell  for  more  money.  Often  entire  localities  become 
noted  for  the  fine  live  stock  they  have,  and  the  best  results  are 
frequently  secured  through  community  cooperation. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Make  a  survey  of  the  pure  bred  live  stock  in  your  school  district, 
tabulate,  and  keep  the  tabulation  with  your  laboratory  notes. 

2.  From   the    1920   U.    S.   Yearbook   of  Agriculture,  page  731,  secure 
the  percentage  of  the  different  breeds  of  pure  bred  cattle  in  the  United 
States.     Secure  and  keep  similar  data  for  sheep,   page   747   of  the  same 
book;  and  similar  data  for  hogs,  page  755. 

3.  Go  to  some  farm  having  registered  animals  or  pure  bred  poultry 
and  let  the  proprietor  explain  to  the  class  the  characteristics  of  the  breed 
and  the  advantages  of  his  pure  breds  over  scrubs. 

4.  If  there  is  no  boys'  or  girls'  club  in  your  school,  organize  one  or 
both.     Let  this  club  raise  some  pure  bred  animals,  keep  an  accurate  rec- 
ord of  them,  and  then  exhibit  them  at  the  school  fair  and  at  that  time 
let  each  boy  and  girl  explain  how  the  animals  were  fed,  and  the  cost  of 
raising  them. 


CHAPTER   III 
FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

THE  matter  of  feeding  well  and  economically  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  every  farmer.  Economic  feeding  means  the  most 
nourishing  food  at  the  lowest  cost.  It  is  often  hard  to  discover 
the  most  satisfactory  feeds  for  beef  steers,  sheep,  swine,  or 
poultry.  We  shall  study  the  subject  briefly  here.  For  a  fuller 
treatment  of  the  matter  refer  to  bulletins  and  textbooks. 

Composition  of  feeds.  —  Feeds  are  chemically  composed  of 
water,  carbohydrates,  fats,  proteins,  and  ash.  Water  in  plants 
is  an  important  part  of  the  feed  stuff.  Green  grasses  contain 
more  than  three  fourths  water  and  all  dry  feeds  contain  about 
one  tenth  water.  Blue  grass  is  about  three  fourths  water.  Blue 
grass  and  milk  are  very  similar  in  composition.  Compare  their 
composition  as  given  in  the  following  table. 

Carbohydrates  comprise  the  starches  and  sugars  in  plants. 
The  elements  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  make  up  the  carbo- 
hydrates. If  we  cut  a  wheat  or  corn  kernel  in  two  parts,  we 
shall  see  a  white  substance  that  is  starch.  The  flour  of  wheat 
is  nearly  all  starch.  Dry  ear  corn  and  wheat  kernels  contain 
about  three  fifths  starch.  Plants  are  largely  composed  of  carbo- 
hydrates, and  the  cells  of  plants  are  on  a  carbohydrate  basis. 

Fats  are  found  in  many  grains.  Wheat  is  2.1  per  cent  fat; 
cowpeas  and  soybeans  contain  2.6  and  2.8  per  cent  of  fat  re- 
spectively. Fats  are  composed  of  the  elements  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen.  Fats  are  often  spoken  of  as  being  concentrated 
carbohydrates. 

26 


FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


27 


DIGESTIBLE  COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  FEED  STUFFS 
(All  analyses  are  given) 


TOTAL 
DRY 
MATTER 

POUNDS  OF  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  too  LB. 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Total 

Nutritive 
Ratio  is 
as  i  is  to 

Corn  products 
Dent  corn 

89.5 
91.2 
92.2 

89.8 
89.9 
89.6 

90.8 
88.5 

88.4 
91.4 
87.I 

90.3 
91.4 

31.6 
21.8 

39-3 

92-5 
94.0 

13-6 
9.6 

94 
26.3 
92.1 

7-5 
I5-I 
10.0 

9.2 
12.5 
13-4 

9-7 

I.O 

3-o 
10.6 
7.6 

13-1 
11.7 

2-3 

3-i 
1.9 

48.1 
37-o 
3-3 
3-i 
3-4 
i.i 
31-6 

67.8 

57-8 

50-3 

67-5 
41.6 
46.2 

52.1 
42.6 

42.8 

39-o 
39-3 
33-7 
39-2 

14.8 
9.6 

20.0 

0.0 
0.0 

4-9 
4.6 
4.9 
15.0 
25.6 

4.6 

4.8 

IO.O 

i-5 
3-o 

4-3 

3-8 
0.9 

1.2 
0.9 

1.8 

I.O 
1.2 

0.6 

0.5 

0.6 

i3-7 

I  I.O 

4.3 
0.9 

O.I 

0.7 

7.8 

85.7 
83.7 
82.8 

80.  1 
60.9 
69.3 

70.4 

45-6 

48.5 
Si.6 
50-9 
49.0 
53-6 

18.5 
13-8 
23-3 

78.9 
61.8 
17.9 
9-7 
8.4 
17.7 
74.8 

IO.4 

4-5 

7-3 

7-7 
3-9 
4.2 

6-3 
44.6 

15.2 
3-9 
5-7 

2-7 

3-6 

7.0 
3-5 
n-3 

0.6 
0.7 

4.4 

2.1 

i-5 

15-1 
1.4 

Gluten  feed      

Germ  oil  meal 

Wheat  products 
Wheat     .     .  .'."''",    .  TjS    I 

Bran 

Middlings    .... 

Oats 
Oats  

Oat  straw 

Hays 
Timothy 

Alfalfa    .          ... 

Red  clover 

Cowpea       

Soybean 

Grasses 
Blue  grass 

White  clover    
Red  top            .... 

Meat  products 
Tankage      .         .... 

Meat  scraps 

Cow's  milk      
Skim  milk,  gravity       .     .     . 
Buttermilk      
Corn  silage 

Cottonseed  meal,  good      .     . 

1  Henry  and  Morrison;  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


28 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


Proteins  are  also  found  in  plant  tissue.  Dent  corn  has  10  per 
cent  protein ;  wheat,  12.5  per  cent ;  and  oats,  12.5  per  cent.  Pro- 
tein substances  contain  the  elements  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  nitrogen,  of  which  nitrogen  is  the  most  important.  Nitrog- 
enous feeds  are  called  so  because  of  their  protein  or  nitrogenous 
content.  The  protein  substances  in  grain  crops  are  called  gluten ; 
in  legumes,  legumen ;  in  eggs,  albumen ;  in  meat,  myosin ;  and 
in  milk,  casein.  The  cell  of  animal  tissue  is  on  a  protein  basis. 

The  ash  substances  of  feeding  stuffs  comprise  the  elements 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron, 
sodium,  silicon,  and  chlorine,  which  remain  after  a  substance 
has  been  burned.  Dent  corn  contains  1.5  per  cent  ash  material ; 
wheat,  1.9  per  cent;  and  oats,  3.5  per  cent. 

The  general  facts  of  the  above  table  have  an  important  bearing 
upon  feeding,  and  the  study  of  the  composition  of  feed  stuffs 
has  practical  value. 

COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMAL  BODIES  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS1 


WATER 

DRY 
MATTER 

PROTEIN 

FATS 

ASH 

SUGAR 

(Approximately) 

Beef  steer  .... 

53-o 

47.0 

13-5 

34-0 

3-60 

0.0 

Fat  nic 

40  O 

ri  o 

12.  0 

40.0 

2.2<C 

o.o 

Fat  lamb    .... 

47.8 

55-2 

12.3 

28.5 

2.94 

0.0 

Milk      

86.4 

13-6 

3-5 

4-4 

0.7 

5-o 

Eggs  (edible  part)    . 

74.0 

26.0 

14.9 

10.5 

0.8 

0.0 

The  study  of  the  above  table  in  comparison  with  the  preceding 
one  brings  out  the  similarity  of  the  composition  of  animal  bodies 
and  their  products  to  the  composition  of  plants  and  their  prod- 
ucts. This  similarity  of  the  chemical  composition  of  animal 

1  Henry  and  Morrison ;  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


bodies  and  plants  may  be  compared  by  studying  the  following 
diagram : 


PROTEIN 


From  the  above  diagram  it  may  be  seen  that  plant  and  animal  tissue  is  somewhat  similar 
in  chemical  composition.  It  may  be  noted,  however,  that  plants  contain  a  great  deal  of 
carbohydrate  material,  and  that  animals  contain  no  carbohydrates.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  may  be  observed  that  animal  bodies  contain  a  greater  amount  of  protein  material  in  pro- 
portion to  the  total  dry  matter  found  in  animal  tissue  than  is  found  in  plant  tissue.  There 
is  generally  a  greater  proportion  of  fat  in  animal  bodies  than  in  plant  bodies.  Corn  has 
4.6  per  cent  fat,  and  a  well-fed  pig  has  22.5  per  cent.  Corn  has  67.8  per  cent  carbohydrates 
and  the  well-fed  pig  has  none.  As  we  shall  see  in  a  following  paragraph,  the  carbohydrates 
are  used  for  producing  heat  energy  and  fat.  The  diagram  deserves  close  study.  The  figures 
show  the  percentage  of  nutrients  found  in  each  article  given. 


30  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

Function  of  food  materials.  —  Water  is  used  to  build  up  body 
tissue.  About  50  per  cent  of  the  body  is  made  up  of  water. 
Milk  and  eggs  are  composed  of  86  and  74  per  cent  of  water  re- 
spectively. It  also  helps  to  dissolve  other  foodstuffs  and  helps 
to  carry  them  through  the  digestive  canal.  Water,  through 
perspiration  and  otherwise,  relieves  the  body  of  waste  material. 
Through  perspiration  it  aids  in  equalizing  the  temperature  of 
the  body. 

Carbohydrates,  the  starches  and  sugars,  have  two  functions : 

1.  To  provide  heat  energy  to  the  body.     (Carbon,  hydrogen, 

and  oxygen,  of  which  they  are  composed,  are  good  heat 
producers.) 

2.  To  provide  fat.     Since  the  composition  of  carbohydrates 

and  fats  is  so  similar,  little  change  is  necessary  to  con- 
vert a  carbohydrate  into  fat.  Every  farmer  knows  that 
starches  and  sugars  are  good  fatteners. 

Fats,  often  defined  as  concentrated  carbohydrates,  have  the 
same  function  as  the  carbohydrates.  In  cold  regions  more 
fats  are  fed  because  they  furnish  more  heat.  A  pound  of  fat 
furnishes  2\  times  as  much  heat  as  a  pound  of  carbohydrates. 

Proteins  build  bone,  muscle,  connective  tissue,  horn,  hoofs, 
skin,  and  hair.  The  protein  foods  are  the  only  source  of  the 
proteins  in  the  body.  Proteins  supply  nitrogen,  which  cannot 
be  supplied  by  the  carbohydrates.  Protein  feeds  make  for 
growth,  vigor,  quality  of  skin  and  hair,  and  are  essential  to  milk 
and  egg  production  and  work. 

Ash  elements  in  foodstuffs  form  bony  tissues,  help  the  blood, 
and  aid  digestion.  The  ash  elements  are  important,  but  are 
not  usually  considered  in  figuring  the  nutritive  ratios  of  feeding 
stuffs. 

Food  requirements  of  animals.  —  Food  requirements  vary 
with  different  conditions  of  work  and  temperature ;  a  few  state- 


FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS  31 

ments  are  applicable  generally.  Physiologists  teach  us  that  the 
human  body  needs  about  eight  times  as  much  carbonaceous 
materials  as  protein  substances.  Agriculturists  tell  us  that  the 
following  are  the  food  requirements  of  different  animals  under 
the  different  conditions  given : 


PART  PROTEIN  TO  CARBOHYDRATES  IN 
NUTRITIVE  RATIO  FOR  DIFFERENT 
ANIMALS  UNDER  DIFFERENT  CONDITIONS 

Horses  at  light  work 

I    '  7  O 

Horses  at  heavy  work   

i  *  6  o 

Milch  cows  giving  milk 

1-68 

Fattening  steer 
First  period 

•  6  8 

Second  period       •  .•.-.'•  
Third  period      

•5-5 

'  <  2 

Fattening  swine 

'  S  < 

For  egg  production    

•  o-j 

148 

For  growing  fowls      
For  fattening  chickens       

|4 

-7-5 

Finding  the  nutritive  ratio.  —  The  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feed 
is  found  by  multiplying  the  digestible  fats  by  2\,  adding  the 
digestible  carbohydrates,  and  dividing  the  result  by  the  diges- 
tible proteins.  To  illustrate,  corn  has  this  composition :  Fats 
4.6  per  cent,  carbohydrates  67.8  per  cent,  protein  7.5  per  cent. 

Then  the  N.R.  of  corn  =  4.6X2^+67.8  Qr  Qr  the  nutritive 

7-5 
ratio  of  corn  is  i :  10.4.     Likewise  the  nutritive  ratio  of  any  feed 

or  food  may  be  found. 

Balancing  a  ration.  —  A  milch  cow  requires  a  ration  whose 
nutritive  ratio  is  as  i :  6.8.  Since  the  N.R.  of  corn  is  i :  10.4^ 
it  is  evident  that  it  contains  too  much  carbohydrate  material. 
Therefore  if  corn  is  fed,  some  feed  that  contains  more  protein 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


must  be  added.     Alfalfa  is  richer  in  protein  than  corn.     Let  us 
see  what  the  N.R.  of  the  following  ration  is. 


FATS 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

PROTEIN 

io  Ib.  alfalfa  hay  =  ^  of  100  Ib.,  or       .     .     . 
t  }Q  corn  —    ^    of  loo  Ib    or 

.09 

3-90 
3A.Q 

1.  06 

•27 

20  Ib.  corn  silage  =  |  of  100  Ib.,  or     .... 

.14 

3.00 

•ol 
.22 

Total                    

.46 

IO  3O 

I  65 

N.R.  =  -46X2^+10.30  =  6.8 
1.65 

or  the  N.R.  of  the  above  ration  is  i :  6.8. 

A  balanced  ration  is  one  in  which  the  protein,  carbohydrates, 
fats,  and  ash  materials  are  fed  in  proper  proportion.  The  needs 
of  the  animal,  of  course,  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
balancing  a  ration. 

Some  factors  influencing  the  value  of  a  feed.  —  In  pur- 
chasing feeds  the  feeder  of  live  stock  or  poultry  is  often  at 
a  loss  to  know  what  feeds  to  buy.  First  of  all  the  matter 
depends  upon  what  feeds  are  on  hand.  If  corn  silage,  oat 
straw,  and  other  carbonaceous  feeds  are  on  the  farm  or  in 
the  bin,  then  a  feed  rich  in  nitrogen,  like  cottonseed  meal, 
tankage,  or  alfalfa  hay,  may  be  purchased,  for  these  would 
serve  to  balance  the  ration  to  some  extent.  Of  course  it 
also  depends  upon  the  suitability  of  the  feed.  For  illus- 
tration, no  one  feeds  tankage  to  cattle,  nor  is  cottonseed 
meal  fed  to  hogs  except  in  small  quantities  and  for  short 
periods.  So  the  suitability  of  the  feed  is  an  item  which  must 
be  considered. 

The  factors  determining  the  usefulness  of  a  feed  are : 


FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS  33 

1 .  Digestibility 

2.  Nutritive  ratio 

3.  Heat-producing  ability 

4.  Bulk  (partly) 

5.  Manurial  value 

6.  Composition  of  the  nutrients 

7.  Cost 

Each  will  be  briefly  discussed. 

1 .  The  value  of  a  feed  is  influenced  by  its  digestibility.     Again 
looking  at  the  table  on  the  digestible  composition  of  feedstuffs, 
and  noticing  the  column  which  shows  the  total  digestible  nutri- 
ents in  each  100  pounds,  we  see  that  corn  silage  has  17.7  pounds 
and  dent  corn  has  85.7  pounds.     It  will  also  be  observed  that 
all  the  hays  given  have  approximately  50  pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients  per  each  100  pounds  ;  while  oats,  wheat,  and  corn  have 
approximately  70,  80,  and  85  pounds  respectively.     Some  plants 
and  feeds  are  hard  and  fibrous,  and  hence  have  a  relatively  small 
value  as  a  feed.     It  will  be  worth  while  to  study  the  table  closely 
and  to  compare  the  total  digestible  ingredients  for  each  i  bo  pounds 
of  feed  stuffs. 

2.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  an  important  factor  affecting  the 
usefulness  of  a  feed.     Oat  straw  has  a  N.R.  of  i :  44.6,  which 
is  very  wide.     Oat  straw  is  a  valuable  feed  when  supplemented 
by   a   small    amount   of  cottonseed  meal,  N.R.    i :  1.4.     This 
combination  makes  a  pretty  good  ration  for  maintaining  and 
roughing  stock  through  the  winter.     If  you  ask  for  prices,  you 
will  find  that  feeds  having  a  narrow  N.R.  are  more  expensive. 
Those  feeds  that  are  cheapest  and  will  balance  the  ration  should 
be  purchased. 

3.  The  heat- producing  ability  of  a  feed  is  also  an  important 
factor  in  determining  its  value.     This  is  an  especially  important 
consideration  for  winter  or  cold  conditions, 


34  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

Corn  is  an  excellent  feed  to  keep  animals  warm  because  it  is 
rich  in  carbohydrates  and  fats,  and  it  has  a  high  percentage  of 
digestible  ingredients.  A  clean,  dry  stable  with  plenty  of  good 
bedding  is  a  large  factor  in  reducing  the  food  required  by  animals 
for  fuel  purposes.  As  is  indicated  elsewhere,  feed  that  is  utilized 
in  keeping  up  bodily  heat  does  not  produce  gains.  Feed  can 
be  saved  by  providing  warm  quarters  in  winter. 

4.  The  value  of  a  feed  often  depends  to  some  extent  upon  its 
bulk,  and  vice  versa.     Corn  silage,  hays,  the  grasses,  root  crops, 
etc.,  are  the  roughage,  and  besides  their  composition  they  furnish 
bulk  to  the  ration.     It  is  because  a  ration  must  have  bulk  that 
dry  matter  is  included  in  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards.     One 
reason  why  shelled  oats  is  an  excellent  feed  for  a  horse  is  that  it 
has  about  30  per  cent  hull. 

Concentrates,  such  as  the  grains  and  legume  seeds,  and  many 
of  the  commercial  feed  stuffs  are  valuable  on  account  of  their 
lack  of  bulk.  Feeding  both  kinds  of  feeds,  concentrates  and 
roughages,  will  usually  give  best  results. 

5.  One 'way  to  measure  the  usefulness  of  a  feed  stuff  is  by  its 
manurial  value.     Corn  silage  has  little  fertility  value,   while 
cottonseed  meal  has  a  high  fertility  value.     The  manurial  value 
is  usually  in  almost  direct  proportion  to  the  feeding  value. 

6.  The  composition  of  the  different  nutrients  in  a  feed  affects 
its  feeding  value  to  some  extent.     Casein  in  milk  has  a  higher 
feeding  value  than  gluten  in  corn,  although  both  are  protein 
substances.     A  balanced  ration  coming  from  the  cereal  king- 
dom will  not  make  pigs  grow  as  fast  or  cause  hens  to  lay  as  many 
eggs,  as  if  the  ration  is  balanced  with  tankage.     This  is  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  tankage  provides  the  proper  things  in  its 
protein  make-up  in  a  more  balanced  or  suitable  form. 

The  ash  ingredients  in  plants  and  animals  are  also  somewhat 
alike,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  table. 


FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


35 


POUNDS  OF  ASH  INGREDIENTS  IN  1000  POUNDS  PLANTS  AND   ANIMALS 

PLANT  PRODUCTS 


PHOSPHORIC  ACID 

POTASH 

LIME 

MAGNESIA 

Dent  corn 

6  Q 

A  o 

O  2 

I  8 

Wheat   . 

8.6 

5-3 

0.6 

2.2 

Oats 

8.1 

<r  6 

I   d 

2  o 

Wheat  bran    

29.5 

16.2 

0.9 

7-3 

Alfalfa  hay     

5-4 

22.3 

19-5 

5-9 

Cottonseed  meal      .     .     . 

26.7 

18.1 

3-6 

8.6 

Red  clover  hay   .     .     .    i 

3-9 

16.3 

16.0 

4-5 

ANIMAL   PRODUCTS 


Fat  calf      .     .     .    ...    .     . 

iS-35 

2.06 

16.46 

0.79 

Fat  Di£ 

6  ^4 

I   ^8 

6  ?6 

O    2  2 

i.^U 

**«,>* 

Fat  lamb   

11.26 

1.66 

12.81 

0.52 

Milk      

2.00 

1.70 

1.70 

0.20 

Wool     

O.yO 

56.20 

i.  80 

6.40 

This  table  indicates  that  corn  contains  0.2  pound  of  lime  in 
a  thousand  pounds  and  6.9  pounds  of  phosphorus.  Alfalfa  has 
19.5  pounds  of  lime  and  5.4  pounds  of  phosphorus.  This  shows 
that  the  ash  ingredients  are  found  in  different  feeds  in  different 
proportions.  This  is  also  an  important  factor  in  the  feeding 
value,  for  in  milk  production  and  in  growing  animals  both  must 
be  provided.  Therefore,  since  alfalfa  and  bran  are  quite  similar 
in  all  other  respects,  the  mineral  composition  may  become  the 
determining  factor  in  the  purchase  of  these  feeds,  for  two  thou- 
sand pounds  of  each  feed  will  bring  better  returns  than  four 
thousand  pounds  of  either.  Some  people  say  feed  a  variety; 
that  depends  upon  the  composition  of  the  ingredient  that  makes 
up  the  feeds. 


36  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

7.  The  cost  of  a  feed  affects  its  economical  value.  The  feed- 
ing value  of  a  feed  remains  the  same  regardless  of  its  price. 
Bran  dropped  fifty  cents  a  hundred  yesterday.  Its  feeding 
value  was  not  changed  a  particle. 

The  price  of  every  ration  should  be  figured,  and  it  may  be 
quickly  done  as  follows,  by  taking  the  current  prices. 

COST  OF  THE  DAILY  RATION  OF  A  DAIRY  Cow 


PRICE  PER 
TON 

PRICE  PER 

IOOO 

POUNDS 

PRICE  PER 
too 
POUNDS 

PRICE  PER 
POUND 

TOTAL 
COST  OF 
RATION 

40  pounds  silage 

$A   OO 

$    2  OO 

$O  2O 

$O  OO2 

$    08 

10  pounds  oat  straw  .... 
5  pounds  bran                 .     .     . 

IO.OO 
3O  OO 

5.00 
I  S-OO 

0.50 
I.  SO 

0.005 
O  OI  S 

•05 
.07  S 

5  pounds  alfalfa 

16  oo 

8  oo 

o  80 

o  008 

O4. 

2  pounds  cottonseed  meal  .     . 

40.00 

20.00 

2.00 

0.02 

.04 

Total  cost $0.285 


The  cost  of  this  ration  is  28.5  cents,  and  the  bran  cost  7.5  cents 
of  the  amount,  or  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  entire  ration. 
Would  it  not  be  better  to  reduce  the  bran  in  the  above  ration 
on  account  of  cost? 

The  question  naturally  arises:  What  is  corn  silage  worth 
when  timothy  hay  is  selling  for  $16  per  ton?  What  is  the 
relative  feeding  value  of  bran  and  alfalfa?  Wheat  and 
corn?  etc.  The  composition  and  N.R.  of  the  feeds,  and  the 
feeds  already  on  hand  will  determine  this  to  some  extent. 

Cost  and  feeding  value  are  the  two  big  factors  measuring  the 
usefulness  of  a  feed. 

Summary.  —  The  question  of  properly  and  economically  feed- 
ing farm  animals  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  important  farm 
problems.  A  careful  study  of  the  result  desired  will  be  a  help 
in  providing  the  best  feeds.  The  feed  requirements  of  animals 


FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS  37 

vary  with  work  and  conditions.  Thus  a  horse  at  heavy  work 
requires  more  protein  than  one  that  is  doing  light  work.  The 
feeds  should  be  properly  balanced  so  that  the  correct  nutritive 
ratio  is  provided. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Find   the   cost   per  ton,  and  per  one  hundred  pounds,  of  each  of 
the  feeds  fed  to  at  least  three  kinds  of  animals. 

Also  find  the  number  of  pounds  of  each  of  the  feeds  fed  to  some  farm 
animal,  and  find  the  cost  of  the  ration  for  one  day. 

2.  Compare   closely  the   composition  of  alfalfa  and  bran;    silage  and 
alfalfa ;    corn  and  wheat ;    milk  and  skim  milk ;    tankage  and  cottonseed 
meal.     Compare  the  feeding  value  of  each  pair  of  feeds  suggested. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE   HORSE 

Importance  of  horses.  —  Horses  are  appreciated  more  to-day 
than  ever  before.  The  tractor  and  improved  machinery  have 
not  displaced  the  horse  to  any  great  extent.  The  number  and 
value  of  the  different  farm  animals  follow : l 


NUMBER  IN  U.  S. 

AVERAGE 
VALUE 

TOTAL  VALUE 

Horses 

21  J.OI    sJ-J. 

$OO  I  3 

$1  783  3O7  380 

Mules     

S  828  873 

142.88 

778  768  OQ2 

Beef  cattle 

•if  AOA  ACS 

c;o  CO 

I  74.8  IJ.6  l8j. 

Dairy  cattle     
Swine 

31,386,378 

62  006  ^6 

61.00 
16  66 

1,886,188,430 

988  807  681 

Sheep 

•J  £    A  'I  f    266 

II   3O 

•3Q  t    T  C2    231 

From  this  table  it  may  be  seen  that  horses  and  mules  stand 
first  in  total  value,  dairy  cattle  second,  and  beef  cattle  third. 

Horses  have  not  decreased  in  the  last  ten  years  in  the  United 
States.  According  to  the  census  reports  there  were  24,000,000 
horses  and  mules  in  the  United  States  in  1910,  and  over  27,000,000 
in  1920.  Contrary  to  the  belief  of  some  people,  the  horse  and 
mule  remain  popular  in  spite  of  the  wide  use  of  the  tractor  and 
the  truck. 

Note  to  the  Teacher:  The  materials  needed  to  do  the  Laboratory  Ex- 
ercises and  Home  Projects  suggested  at  the  close  of  this  chapter  are : 

Two  draft  and  two  light  horses  to  judge ;  a  saddle  horse ;  and  a  five-foot 
measuring  tape. 

1  1920  Census  Report. 
38 


THE   HORSE 


39 


Essentials  in  judging  horses.  —  A  good  judge  of  horses  must 
be  a  close  observer,  quick  to  see  deviations  from  a  correct  con- 
formation. He  must  know  the  different  breed  characteristics 
and  be  able  to  tell  the  age  of  a  horse,  capable  of  detecting 
blemishes  and  unsoundnesses  of  horses  and  of  passing  judgment 
upon  these  points.  Discussions  of  the  things  which  will  enable 
the  pupil  and  farmer  to  improve  themselves  in  putting  a  proper 
estimate  on  horses  follow. 


UNITED  STATES 
TEXAS 

ILLINOIS 

IOWA 

KANSAS 

NEBRASKA 

MISSOURI 

OKLAHOMA 

MINNESOTA 

INDIANA 

OHIO 

REST  OF  STATES 


GRAPH  i.  — The  leading  states  in  horse  and  mule  production.    (1922  est.) 

Parts  of  a  horse.  —  The  skeleton  of  a  horse  is  the  framework 
upon  which  the  conformation,  action,  and  other  important 
features  of  a  horse  largely  depend.  Each  type  has  features  that 
are  distinctive ;  for  instance,  the  draft  horse  has  a  larger  frame 
and  the  bones  are  heavier.  The  pasterns  are  generally  shorter 
and  thicker  than  are  the  pasterns  of  the  light  horse. 

The  form  of  the  skeleton  affects  the  action.  There  are  three 
or  four  important  points  considered  in  action ;  namely,  length  of 
stride,  elasticity,  trueness,  and  energy  of  action.  Length  of 


40  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

stride  is  to  some  extent  dependent  upon  the  length  and  oblique- 
ness of  shoulder  and  pastern.  Straight  shoulders  and  pasterns 
give  the  horse  a  short  stride,  with  heavy  concussion,  conducive 


26" 

FIG.  7.  —  The  parts  of  a  horse. 

i.  Muzzle;  2.  nostrils;  3.  face;  4.  eye;  5.  forehead;  6.  ear;  7.  neck;  8.  crest; 
9.  withers;  10.  back;  n.  loin;  12.  hip;  13.  croup;  14.  tail;  15.  thigh;  16.  quarter; 
17.  gaskin  or  lower  thigh;  18.  hock;  19.  stifle;  20.  flank;  21.  ribs;  22.  tendons; 
23.  fetlocks;  24.  pastern;  25.  foot;  26.  heel  of  foot;  27.  cannon;  28.  knee;  29.  fore- 
arm; 30.  chest;  31.  arm;  32.  shoulder;  33.  throat  latch;  A.  thoroughpin;  B.  curb; 
C.  bog  and  blood  spavin ;  D.  bone  spavin ;  E.  splint ;  F.  windgall ;  G.  capped  elbow ; 
H.  poll  evil. 

to  blemishes.  Elasticity  and  springiness  are  impossible  with  a 
straight  shoulder  and  pastern.  Trueness  of  action  is  dependent, 
to  a  large  degree,  upon  the  attitude  of  the  legs.  If  the  legs  are 
straight,  the  action  will  be  straight  and  true. 


THE  HORSE  41 

If  from  the  front  the  knees  are  in  or  out,  or  if  the  front  feet 
turn  in  or  out,  the  action  cannot  be  straight  and  true.  Also  if 
the  hocks  are  in,  as  they  often  are,  and  the  rear  feet  are  out,  the 
action  will  be  untrue.  The  action  of  a  horse  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  conformation  of  the  skeleton. 

Age  of  a  horse.  —  Horses  have  two  sets  of  teeth,  a  temporary 
and  a  permanent  set.  The  temporary  teeth  make  their  appear- 
ance during  the  first  and  second  months  of  the  colt's  life.  They 


FIG.  8.  —  The  upper  four  pictures  show  correct  conformation  that  gives  strength  and 
trueness  of  action ;  the  lower  pictures  illustrate  incorrect  conformation,  which  is  conducive 
to  poor  action. 

are  small,  very  white,  and  soft.  They  change  as  follows :  The 
middle  incisors  come  out  when  the  colt  is  two  and  one  half  or  three 
years  old,  and  permanent  ones  take  their  place.  The  intermediate 
incisors  above  and  below  disappear  when  the  horse  is  three  and 
one  half  or  four  years  old,  and  permanent  ones  take  their  place. 
At  four  and  one  half  or  five  years  the  corner  incisors  disappear, 
and  the  permanent  ones  take  their  place.  At  five,  the  per- 
manent teeth  are  all  present  and  the  horse  is  said  to  have  a  full 
mouth.  The  permanent  teeth  are  larger,  darker  in  color,  and 
of  a  harder  texture  than  the  milk  teeth.  To  tell  the  age  of  a 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


Lower  front  teeth  at  three  years  of  age. 
Two  center  permanent  teeth  up. 


Lower  front  teeth  at  four  years  of  age. 
Four  center  permanent  teeth  up. 


Lower  front  teeth  at  five  years  of  age. 
All  permanent  teeth  up. 


Lower  front  teeth  at  six  years  of  age. 
Cups  out  in  center  pair. 


Lower  front  teeth  at  seven  years  of  age. 
Cups  out  of  intermediate  pair  of  incisors. 


Lower  front  teeth  at  eight  years  of  age. 
Cups  all  out. 


Upper  front  teeth  at  nine  years  of  age. 
Cups  out  of  center  pair. 

FIG.  9. 


Upper  front  teeth  at  ten  years  of  age. 
Cups  out  of  intermediate  pair. 


THE  HORSE 


43 


colt  under  five  years  notice  which  temporary  incisors  are  gone, 
and  which  ones  are  still  present. 

To  tell  the  age  of  a  horse  after  he  is  five,  observe  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  cups  in  the  teeth.  The  cups  in  the  teeth  of  the 
lower  jaw  disappear  first.  The  cups  in  the  middle  two  lower 
incisors  are  gone  when  the  horse  is  six  years  old ;  the  cups  in 
the  intermediate  lower  incisors  are  gone  at  seven ;  and  the  cups 
of  the  lower  corner  incisors  are  gone  at  eight. 


Upper  front  teeth  at  eleven 
years  of  age.     Cups  all  out. 


Upper  front  teeth  at  twenty- 
one    years    of    age.     Note  the     Side  view  at  five  years 
triangular  form  of  the  teeth.  of  age. 

FIG.  10. 


The  cups  in  the  upper  jaw  disappear  from  the  middle,  inter- 
mediate, and  corner  incisors  at  the  ages  of  nine,  ten,  and  eleven 
years  respectively.  The  exact  time  at  which  the  cups  of  horses' 
teeth  disappear  depends  upon  the  texture  of  the  teeth,  the  kind 
of  feed,  and  the  disposition  of  the  horse.  At  twelve  the  horse 
has  a  smooth  mouth.  After  twelve  the  age  of  a  horse  cannot  be 
accurately  told.  Harper  says,1  "  After  a  horse  has  passed  the 
twelfth  year,  a  year  or  two  matters  little.  Much  depends  on 
the  individuality  of  the  animal,  as  some  animals  are  worth  more 
at  fifteen  than  others  at  twelve.  The  value  of  a  horse  should 
then  be  determined  from  general  appearances  and  activity  rather 
than  upon  age." 

1  Harper;  "  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools." 


44  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

Blemishes,  unsoundnesses,  and  diseases  of  horses.  —  Blem- 
ishes are  defects  which  do  not  interfere  with  the  functioning  of 
the  part  affected.  Unsoundnesses  do  interfere  with  the  function- 
ing of  the  part  affected.  A  wire  cut  may  be  a  blemish  only, 
because  it  may  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  horse.  But 
a  ring  bone,  side  bone,  curb,  and  similar  defects  do  interfere  with 
the  proper  functioning  of  the  parts  affected,  and  are  therefore 
called  unsoundnesses.  A  disease  irritates  parts  of  the  body,  so 
that  the  horse  is  sick.  Distemper,  bots,  heaves,  and  colic  are 
diseases.  We  shall  study  the  most  important  blemishes  and 
unsoundnesses. 

Defective  vision.  Horses  are  often  totally  blind.  This  defect 
may  be  easily  observed  by  looking  at  the  horse's  eye  and  watch- 
ing the  horse  walk,  for  a  blind  horse  will  lift  its  feet  higher  than 
is  natural. 

Defective  hearing.  Some  horses  are  hard  of  hearing.  Such 
a  horse  does  not  respond  when  spoken  to,  and  will  use  its  eyes 
unduly,  and  the  ears  are  usually  held  rigidly. 

Poll  evil  appears  between  the  ears  over  the  poll.  It  is  due  to 
bruises  of  the  poll,  often  caused  by  standing  in  a  stable  that  has 
a  low  ceiling.  The  poll  is  bruised  and  becomes  sensitive.  The 
horse  suffering  from  poll  evil  does  not  like  to  be  bridled,  because 
any  touch  on  the  poll  is  painful.  This  defect  can  usually  be 
remedied  by  preventing  irritation  to  the  poll. 

Sore  shoulders  are  usually  caused  by  an  ill-fitting  collar.  A 
horse  having  shoulders  that  are  20  inches  long  and  a  bearing  sur- 
face of  2  inches  width,  has  a  total  of  80  square  inches  of  bearing 
surface.  If  a  collar  fits  well,  and  the  horse  pulls  2000  pounds, 
there  is  a  weight  of  25  pounds  on  each  square  inch.  But  if  the 
collar  is  too  long,  all  the  weight  of  the  load  is  borne  on  the  shoulder 
point,  or  about  8  square  inches.  Then  the  weight  and  pressure 
on  each  square  inch  is  250  pounds  and  causes  sore  shoulders. 


THE  HORSE  45 

Sweeny  is  also  a  defect  on  the  shoulder.  The  muscles  over  the 
shoulder  blade  shrink,  and  the  remaining  muscles  apparently 
grow  fast  to  the  bone.  It  is  difficult  to  lift  the  skin  over  the 
region  affected. 

Fistula  are  collections  of  pus,  as  indicated  in  Figure  n.     This 
defect,  like  poll  evil,  is  caused  by  a  bruise.     Often  horses  in 
rolling  bruise   the  withers  on  a 
stone   or   hard   soil    and   fistulas 
result.     They  should  be  opened 
at  the  lowest  point  possible,  and 
washed  out  with  a  three  per  cent 
carbolic    acid   solution   or    some 
other  good  disinfectant. 

Capped      elbow,      occasionally 

called  shoe  boils,  may  be  caused  FIG.  11.  — Fistula. 

by  the  horse's  hitting  the  elbow 

with  the  shoe  of  the  rear  foot  upon  lying  down.     Capped  elbow 
does  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  horse. 

Splints,  bony  deposits  at  the  end  of  the  splint  bones,  generally 
occur  on  the  inner  front  cannon  and  sometimes  near  the  tendon. 
Near  the  tendon  a  splint  interferes  with  the  horse's  action  much 
more  than  a  splint  on  the  inner  front  cannon. 

Scratches  appear  on  the  rear  of  the  pastern.  Scratches  are  a 
chapped  condition  of  the  skin  and  are  caused  by  the  horse's 
standing  in  unclean,  muddy,  wet  stables.  Give  the  horse  a  clean 
stable,  wash  the  parts  affected,  first  with  soap,  and  then  with 
clean,  well-boiled,  salt  water. 

Ring  bones  and  side  bones  are  due  to  a  bony  deposit  and  occur 
just  above  the  top  of  the  hoof,  generally  on  the  front  feet.  There 
are  two  forms  of  side  bones,  high  and  low.  Ring  bones  grow 
nearly  all  the  way  around  the  hoof,  and  side  bones  grow  on  the 
sides  only. 


46  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

Quarter  cracks  and  sand  cracks.  Quarter  cracks  appear  at 
the  rear  quarter  of  the  foot,  and  sand  cracks  appear  on  the  front 
part  of  the  hoof.  Corns  and  thrush  are  other  blemishes  of  the 
feet. 

Blemishes  and  unsoundnesses  of  the  hock  are  the  most  com- 
mon defects  in  horses.  A  capped  hock  is  an  enlargement  and 
thickening  of  the  skin  of  the  hock.  A  curb  is  a  bony  deposit 
that  appears  about  three  or  four  inches  below  the  hock  and  is 

more  serious  than  a  capped 
hock.  Thoroughpins  appear 
between  the  tendon  and  the 
bone,  just  above  the  hock. 
Thoroughpins  are  knot-like  in 
shape  and  movable.  Bone 
spavins  appear  on  the  inner 
lower  point  of  the  hock  and 
may  be  seen  from  the  front  of 
the  horse.  Bog  spavins  are 
soft  swellings  made  by  the  de- 
posit of  oil  of  the  joint  and 
appear  in  the  natural  depres- 
sion on  the  inner  and  front 

FIG.  12.  —  A  capped  hock  and  a  curb. 

part  of  the  hock. 

Wind  puffs  occur  just  above  either  the  front  or  rear  fetlocks. 

Distemper  is  a  bad  cold  of  a  horse.  It  is  very  contagious; 
horses  suffering  from  it  should  be  isolated  and  not  permitted  to 
drink  or  eat  with  the  other  horses.  Distemper  may  usually  be 
cured  by  keeping  the  horse  in  clean,  dry,  warm,  sunshiny  quar- 
ters and  feeding  it  carefully. 

Heaves  is  a  disease  of  the  lungs  in  which  the  air  sacs  become  dis- 
tended and  the  muscles  around  the  sacs  lose  their  power  to  control 
exhalation.  Air  escapes  from  the  lungs  suddenly  and  loudly. 


THE   HORSE 


47 


Bots  are  due  to  the  hot  fly  which  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  front 
cannon  of  the  horse,  where  they  hatch.  They  cause  an  itching 
sensation  and  the  horse  bites  them  off  and  swallows  them.  The 
larvae  remain  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse  for  about  nine  or  ten 
months,  securing  their  food  from 
the  inner  lining  of  the  stomach.  The 
best  way  to  combat  bots  is  to  de- 
stroy the  eggs  while  on  the  cannon 
by  wetting  well  with  kerosene  or 
some  disinfectant. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to 
keep  the  horse  free  from  blemishes, 
unsoundnesses,  and  diseases  of  all 

kinds. 

Draft  horse  type.  —  Draft  horses    . 

right  young  bots  attached  to  stomach 

are  large,  compact,  and  heavy.  When  wall.  a.  female  hot  fly;  b.  the  hot; 
fat,  they  weigh  from  1600  to  2300  c'  magnifk 
pounds.  The  weight  of  draft  horses  affects  the  price.  Heavy 
draft  horses  bring  more  per  pound  than  light  draft  horses. 
In  1893  a  Chicago  firm  found  the  average  prices  for  the  weights 
as  follows  :  1 


13. 


Courtesy  of  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Bots  in  stomach.   At 


AVERAGE  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE  PRICE 

CENTS  PER  POUND 

1400 

$155.87 

$0.111 

1450 

159.15 

0.109 

1500 

169.15 

O.II2 

1550 

176.56 

O.II4 

1600 

176.62 

O.IIO 

1650 

208.64 

0.126 

1700 

212.89 

O.I25 

1750 

236.14 

O.I26 

1800 

258.33 

0.135 

Craig ;  "  Judging  Live  Stock.' 


FIG.  14.  —  A  Percheron  type,  showing  the  conformation,  intelligence,  temperament,  and 
countenance  desirable  in  a  Percheron  horse. 


Courtesy  of  Hale  Pub.  Co. 

FIG.  15.  —  A  Percheron  mare,  showing  the  breed  characteristics,  form,  and  color  that  are 
most  typically  Percheron. 


49 


50  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  horses  weighing  1800 
pounds  brought  more  than  $100  more  than  horses  weighing 
1400  pounds.  Weight  is  an  important  factor  in  draft  horse 
values. 

The  importance  of  quality  of  bone,  skin,  and  hair  of  a  draft 
horse  can  hardly  be  overemphasized.  Roughness  of  bone,  show- 
ing blemishes  and  unsoundnesses,  is  a  bad  condition.  The  leg 
should  be  flat  and  wide,  with  well-defined  tendons.  The  skele- 
ton of  a  draft  horse  is  better  covered  than  that  of  a  light  horse, 
and  therefore  blemishes  are  often  difficult  to  detect.  Sound 
texture  of  bone  and  foot  are  desirable  points.  A  good  foot  is 
essential  to  any  horse.  The  old  saying,  "  no  foot,  no  horse," 
is  correct.  A  sound,  tough-textured,  good-sized,  concave,  solid 
foot  is  essential  in  a  draft  horse.  The  legs  and  feet  should  be 
straight  from  the  front  and  the  back.  A  well-sloping  shoulder 
and  well-sloping  pastern  are  essential.  A  long,  regular,  true, 
elastic  walk  is  the  essential  gait  of  this  type  of  horse. 

Draft  horse  breeds.  —  The  Percheron  horse  originated  in 
La  Perche,  France.  All  horses  used  in  France  for  breeding 
purposes  are  examined  by  government  veterinarians  and  are 
classified  as  follows : 

1.  Approved  horses  are  the  best,  and  the  owners  are  given 
a  bonus  yearly  of  $60  to  $100  as  a  subsidy  by  the  national  gov- 
ernment. 

2.  Subsidized  horses  are  the  next  best,  and  owners  of  this 
class  of  horses  are  given  a  bonus  of  about  $60  yearly. 

3.  Authorized  horses  belong  to  the  poorest  class  and  are  per- 
mitted to  be  used  as  breeding  stock  but  are  considered  mediocre 
horses,  —  and  their  kind  is  discouraged.     Such  government  sup- 
port as  the  above  helps  in  building  up  a  definite  type  of  animal. 

Percheron  horses  have  been  imported  in  large  numbers  into 
the  United  States  and  are  found  chiefly  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Ohio, 


THE   HORSE  51 

Indiana,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Minnesota. 

Percheron  horses  have  definite  breed  characteristics.  They  are 
usually  black  or  gray  in  color,  15^-  to  17  hands  high,  weighing  from 
1600  to  2100  pounds.  They  have  a  strong  conformation  and  are 


FIG.  1 6.  —  Baron's  Pride.  Said  to  be  the  greatest  Clydesdale  sire  in  the  world.  Shows 
the  conformation,  sloping  shoulders  and  pasterns,  short  back,  and  a  distribution  of  white 
points  that  stamp  this  breed. 

noted  for  their  constitution  and  endurance.  They  generally  have 
excellent  feet,  excellent  heads  and  necks,  and  in  every  respect  are 
fine  horses.  For  a  combination  of  constitution,  endurance,  feet, 
speed,  and  strength,  they  have  few  equals  and  no  superiors. 


52  LIVE   STOCK  AND    FARM   MECHANICS 

The  Clydesdale  horse  has  been  developed  by  Scotch  breeders 
along  the  Clyde  River  in  Scotland.  Though  they  are  of  mixed 
origin,  since  about  1850  they  have  been  kept  pure.  Clydesdale 
horses  are  now  found  chiefly  in  Germany,  Russia,  Sweden,  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  the  United  States. 


FIG.  17.  —  A  Shire  stallion,  showing  the  most  approved  type  combining   size,  weight, 
conformation,  draft,  and  color  typical  of  this  breed. 

The  Clydesdales  are  typical  draft  horses,  being  about  16  to 
i6i  hands  tall  and  weighing  from  1600  to  2100  pounds.  They 
are  usually  bay  and  brown  in  color,  with  often  one  or  more  white 
feet,  and  sometimes  a  white-blazed  face.  Their  shoulders  and 
pasterns  are  oblique  and  help  to  give  them  good  action.  The 
feet,  bone,  and  action  are  emphasized  by  the  Scotch  breeders. 


THE   HORSE  53 

The  ribs  of  the  Clydesdale  horses  are  often  comparatively  short.. 
This  makes  for  a  body  that  lacks  depth.  The  action  of  the 
Clydesdale  is  unsurpassed  by  other  breeds  of  draft  horses.  Some 
people  object  to  their  lack  of  length  of  rib  and  to  their  hairy 
fetlocks. 


FIG.  1 8.  —  Belgian  draft  horse. 

The  English  Shire  horse  is  the  draft  horse  of  England.  It  is 
a  large  horse  equaled  only  by  the  Belgian  horse  in  weight.  These 
horses  weigh,  when  fat,  from  1800  to  2400  pounds.  They  are 
generally  black,  bay,  or  gray  in  color,  with  white  markings  on  the 
forehead  and  on  the  legs  below  the  knee.  The  Shire  is  a  strong, 
massive  draft  horse.  They  are  found  mainly  in  English-speak- 
ing countries.  There  are  some  Shires  in  the  United  States. 


54 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


The  Belgian  is  the  largest  of  all  the  draft  breeds.  Figure  18  is 
a  fair  representation  of  the  Belgian  type. 

The  Suffolk  (punch)  horse  originated  in  England.  It  is  chest- 
nut in  color  and  the  smallest  of  the  draft  breeds. 


FIG.  19.  —  A  Hackney  coach  horse. 

Coach  horses.  Coach  horses  range  from  15  to  i6|  hands 
high  and  weigh  from  1000  to  1500  pounds.  The  German  Coach, 
the  Hackney,  and  Cleveland  Bay  of  England,  and  the  French 
Coach  represent  the  coach  breeds.  The  German  Coach  is  the 


THE   HORSE 


55 


largest  and  the  Hackney  the  smallest  of  this  type.  The  Hackney 
is  known  for  its  high  knee  and  hock  action.  The  principal  gait 
of  the  coach  horse  is  the  trot. 

Light  horses.  —  Light  horses  comprise  the  English  Thorough- 
bred, American   Saddle  horse,   the    Standard-bred    horse,    the 


Courtesy  of  the  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Purdue  University. 


FIG.  20.  —  Strength  and  speed.     Note  width  of  breast,  and  short  straight  pasterns  of 
the  one  in  contrast  to  light  and  long  oblique  pasterns  of  the  other  one. 


Arabian,  and  Orloff  Trotter.  The  Thoroughbred  is  the  English 
running  horse.  The  American  Saddle  horse  is  either  a  three-  or 
five-gaited  horse.  The  Standard-bred  horse  is  bred  for  speed. 
These  horses  trot  or  pace.  The  Standard-bred  horse  and  the 
American  Saddle  horse  furnish  much  entertainment  at  state 
fairs. 


Courtesy  of  the  Show  Horse  Chronicle,  Lexington,  Kentucky. 

FIG.  21.  —  Rex  McDonald  833,  —  an  American  saddle  horse,  showing  the  beautiful 
form,  the  stylish  carriage  of  head  and  tail,  and  the  intelligence  of  this  breed. 

56 


THE  HORSE  57 

Market  classes  of  mules.  —  There  are  five  market  classes 
of  mules,  (i)  The  plantation  mules  are  of  two  kinds,  the  sugar 
plantation  mule  and  the  cotton  mule.  Sugar  plantation  mules 
are  15  to  17  hands  tall  and  weigh  noo  to  1500  pounds.  They 
are  better  than  other  mules  in  quality,  style,  and  action,  and  bring 
the  highest  prices.  The  cotton 
mules  range  from  14^  to  15.5-  hands 
and  weigh  from  850  to  1 100  pounds. 
They  have  medium-sized  bones,  are 
compact,  and  of  good  style.  (2)  The 
lumber  mules  range  from  15!  to 
i6|  hands,  weigh  from  1250  to  1600 
pounds  and  possess  more  ruggedness 
and  bone  than  do  the  sugar  mules. 

(3)  Railroad  mules  are  the  same 
height  as  lumber  mules  but  weigh 
a  little  less.      Quality  and  action 
are  essential  points  of   this  mule. 

(4)  Levee    mules    are   about   the 
same  as  railroad  mules  but  possess 
a  little  more  substance  and  can  do 
harder  work.     They  are  used  as 

FIG.  22.  —  A    matched    mule   team. 

draft      animals.          Soundness      and    Note   the   fine,    gentle,    docile   counte- 
i  .  -i  .1.,  i        •      j      nances  of  these  mules.   They  are  superior 

working    ability    are    emphasized.   and  safe  workers. 

(5)  The  mining  mules  are  from  \i\ 

to  14^  hands,  and  weigh  about  700  to  900  pounds.  They  must 
possess  rather  heavy  bones  and  be  rugged  in  order  to  do  the  work 
in  the  mines. 

Prices  vary,  but  the  mining  mules  and  cotton  mules  are  gen- 
erally the  lowest-priced  mules;  mules  belonging  to  the  other 
classes  have  a  ready  sale  and  bring  good  prices  and  are,  therefore, 
profitable  for  production. 


58  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

Factors  influencing  the  work  of  the  horse.  —  There  are 
several  things  which  influence  the  work  of  the  horse.  High 
wheels  are  more  easily  pulled  than  low  ones;  a  12 -inch  plow 
pulls  proportionately  easier  than  a  1 6-inch  plow ;  a  sloping  mold- 
board  pulls  easier  than  a  straight  one ;  eight  2-inch  shovels  pull 
easier  than  four  4-inch  shovels ;  roller  and  ball  bearings  reduce  the 
draft  and  a  rolling  and  cutting  coulter  does  the  same.  Since  horse 
power  is  so  generally  used  on  the  farm,  it  behooves  the  farmer  to 
do  everything  possible  to  reduce  the  draft  and  thus  aid  the  horse. 

Care  and  management  of  horses.  —  Occasionally  horses' 
teeth  do  not  wear  down  evenly,  and  a  little  filing  will  take  away 
the  uneven  sharp  edges  left  on  the  upper  corner  incisors. 

Horses  should  not  be  exposed  to  a  cold  brisk  wind  or  left  out 
in  the  cold  when  they  have  been  driven  hard.  Blanketing  the 
horse  will  prevent  disease  and  protect  it  somewhat  against 
extreme  cold  temperatures. 

The  feet  of  a  horse  need  constant  attention  if  it  is  being  worked. 
Dry  hoofs  should  be  oiled,  and  shoes  should  be  carefully  put  on 
and  renewed  frequently.  oThe  entire  length  of  the  horse's  foot 
grows  out  in  from  3  to  14  months.  At  the  rear,  where  the  foot 
is  short,  it  grows  out  in  4  months.  At  the  front  the  entire  length 
is  repaired  by  new  tissues  in  about  12  to  14  months.  Since  the 
foot  is  larger  near  the  bottom  than  at  the  top  of  the  hoof,  and 
since  the  hoof  grows  quite  rapidly,  shoes  should  be  taken  off 
and  refitted  to  the  foot.  Poor  action  and  blemishes  are  often 
due  to  poor  shoeing.  It  is  better  to  fit  the  shoe  to  the  foot  than 
the  foot  to  the  shoe. 

Horses  should  be  groomed  in  the  morning  and  at  the  close  of 
the  day.  Grooming  has  other  values  than  merely  improving  the 
appearance  of  the  horse.  Brushing  off  the  perspiration  at  the 
close  of  the  day  improves  the  condition  of  skin  and  hair  and 
reduces  the  chances  of  the  horse's  becoming  chilled. 


THE   HORSE 


59 


Training  horses.  —  Colts  should  be  handled  very  early  in 
life  and  may  be  made  gentle.  They  may  be  taught  to  stand 
over,  back,  or  move  forward.  A  few  simple  things  taught  the 
colt  saves  a  lot  of  energy  later  and  secures  better  results. 

When  a  young  horse  is  being  trained  to  work,  it  should  be 
hitched  beside  a  well-trained,  easily  controlled,  sensible  horse. 
The  early  training  of  a  colt  is  important,  for  then  it  forms  habits 


a.  a,  a.     End  of  esophagus. 

b.  Forestomach. 

c.  True  digestive  part. 
c\.    Pyloric  orifice. 

d.  Duodenum. 

e.  Orifices    of    bile    and    pancreatic 
ducts. 


FIG.  23.  —  A  simple  and  a  compound  stomach. 

which  stick  to  it  afterward.  For  illustration,  if  a  colt  is  allowed 
to  start  as  soon  as  or  before  the  driver  gets  into  the  wagon,  the 
habit  will  be  hard  to  overcome.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it 
is  trained  to  stand  until  the  driver  says  go,  this  habit  will  remain 
with  it  always.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  few  simple  things 
should  be  taught  a  horse  when  it  is  being  trained.  Horses  will 
do  what  you  ask  them  to  do,  but  first  they  must  be  taught  what 
is  wanted. 


6o 


LIVE   STOCK   AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


Feeding  horses.  —  The  digestive  organs  of  different  farm  ani- 
mals vary  in  capacity.  Horses  and  swine  have  one  stomach, 
while  the  ruminants,  cows,  sheep,  and  goats,  have  several  stom- 
achs. The  picture  on  the  preceding  page  will  give  an  idea  of 
the  difference. 

The  capacities  of  the  digestive  organs  of  the  different  animals 
as  given  by  Harper  are  as  follows : l 

LENGTH  OF  INTESTINES  AND  CAPACITY  OF  STOMACH  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


CAPACITY,  QUARTS 

TOTAL  QUARTS 

LENGTH,  FEET,  OF 
INTESTINES 

Stomach 

Intestines 

Horse  .     .     .     . 

19.0 

204.8 

223.8 

98.1 

Cow     .     .     .     . 

266.9 

109.8 

376.7 

187.2 

Sheep  .     .     .     . 

31-3 

15-4 

46.7 

107-3 

Hog     .     .     .     . 

8-5 

20.5 

29.0 

77.1 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  table  that  the  horse  and  hog  have 
smaller  digestive  organs,  and  for  this  reason  their  food  must 
not  be  so  bulky  as  the  feed  of  cows  and  sheep. 

A  few  rations  for  work  horses  weighing  1250  pounds  will  be 
in  order  here : 


Oats       .... 

12.0  lb. 

Oats       

10.0  lb. 

Timothy  hay  .     . 

13  o  lb. 

Corn      .... 

5.0  lb. 

Hay 

15.0  lb. 

Corn      .... 

.     .     10.8  lb. 

Corn      

5.0  lb. 

Oats       .     .     . 

8olb 

Oats       

5.0  lb. 

Timothy  hay 

10  o  lb 

Bran 

5.0  lb. 

Oat  straw  . 

<.o  lb. 

Timothy  hay 

10.0  lb. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  one  or  two  of  these  rations  should  be 
figured  according  to  data  given  in  the  preceding  chapter  on 
feeding  farm  animals. 

1  Harper ;  "  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools." 


THE  HORSE  61 

Summary.  —  In  judging  a  horse  it  is  important  to  know  the 
age  and  to  be  able  to  detect  any  unsoundnesses.  The  forma- 
tion of  the  skeleton  determines  largely  the  action,  shape,  con- 
stitution, and  endurance  of  the  horse.  The  draft  horse  must  be 
able  to  walk  well;  the  coach  horse  must  trot  well;  and  light 
horses  must  be  able  to  perform  at  different  gaits.  The  early 
training  of  a  colt  is  important,  for  the  habits  horses  learn  in 
their  youth  remain  with  them.  Proper  feed  and  care  increase 
the  usefulness  of  a  horse.  A  horse  can  hardly  be  expected  to  do 
its  best  unless  it  has  a  good  driver  and  well-fitting  harness. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  (a)   In  the  draft  horse,  note  the  large   frame;     size   and   strength 
of  the  bones ;   and  the  short,  thick  pastern.     Note  the  lightness  of  frame 
and  the  length  of  the  pastern  of  the  coach  horse.     Study  the  action,  not- 
ing the  length  of  stride,  elasticity,  trueness,  and  energy.     How  does  the 
light  horse  differ  from  the  coach  horse,  and  the  draft  horse?     (b)   With  a 
plumb  line,  made  by  tying  a  little  rock  or  a  piece  of  lead  to  a  string,  study 
the  skeleton  of  a  horse,  as  to  straightness  from  the  shoulder  point  and 
buttock  and  also  from  the  sides. 

2.  Examine  several  horses  and  tell  their  ages.     From  what  teeth  can 
you  tell  the  age  of  horses  under  nine  years?    Over  nine  years?    What 
points  are  observed  on  the  lower  front  teeth  of  a  horse  three  years  old? 
Four  years  old?    How  can  one  tell  the  age  of  a  horse  under  five  years? 
How  can  one  tell  the  age  of  a  horse  after  he  is  five  years  old  ?    After  he  is 
nine  years  old  ?    After  what  age  is  it  impossible  to  tell  accurately  the  age  of 
a  horse  ? 

3.  With  a  horse  before  you,  tell  where  blemishes  are  located  and  the 
character  of  each. 

4.  Take  measurements  with  a  tape  of  the  following  points  of  a  draft 
horse  and  a  light  horse  and  record  in  the  following  table. 

To  make  these  measurements  accurately  you  will  need  to  study  the  parts 
of  the  horse  shown  on  the  following  page.  On  Figure  24  indicate  the  dis- 
tances in  the  table  that  are  to  be  measured,  and  practice  until  you  can 


J2 


FIG.  24.  —  Parts  of  a  horse. 


1.  Mouth. 

2.  Nostril. 

3.  Chin. 

4.  Nose. 

5.  Face. 

6.  Forehead. 
7-  Eye. 

8.  Ear. 

9.  Lower  jaw. 

10.  Throat  latch. 

1 1 .  Windpipe. 

12.  Crest. 
13-  Withers. 


14.  Shoulder. 

15.  Breast. 

16.  Arm. 

17.  Elbow. 

1 8.  Forearm. 

19.  Knee. 

20.  Cannon. 

21.  Fetlock. 

22.  Pastern. 

23.  Foot. 

24.  Fore  flank. 

25.  Heart  girth. 

26.  Coupling. 


27.  Back. 

28.  Loin. 

29.  Rear  flank. 

30.  Belly. 
31-  Hip. 
32.  Croup. 
33-  Tail. 

34.  Buttock. 

35.  Quarters. 

37.  Stifle.' 

38.  Lower  thigh. 

39.  Hock. 


[62 


THE   HORSE  63 

locate  the  points  at  once.     How  many  of  the  parts  mentioned  on  Figure 
24  can  you  locate  correctly  without  the  aid  of  the  figure  numbers  ? 


DRAFT 


LIGHT 


1 .  Length  of  head  from  lips  to  poll 

2.  Length  of  neck  from  poll  to  withers 

3.  Height  at  withers 

4.  Height  from  withers  to  elbow      .     . 

5.  Distance  from  elbow  to  ground   . 

6.  Length  of  shoulder 

7.  Length  of  arm 

8.  Length  of  forearm 

9.  Length  of  cannon 

10.  Distance  around  cannon     .     .     .     . 

1 1 .  Distance  from  fetlock  to  ground 

12.  Angle  of  front  pastern 

13.  Girth  measure       

14.  Length  of  back  from  withers  to  hip 

15.  Length  from  shoulder  to  buttock     . 

1 6.  Length  of  croup 

17.  Length  of  gaskin 

1 8.  Distance  from  hock  to  ground     .     . 

19.  Height  at  croup '. 

20.  Angle  of  hind  pastern 

21.  Width  through  breast 

22.  Width  over  hips 

23.  Weight 


64 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


5.  Use  the  following  score  card  in  judging  several  draft  horses : 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  HORSES  —  DRAFT 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


1.  General  appearance  —  35  points 

Age,  estimated  —  years  —  actual  .     ,     . 

Height,  in  hands 

Weight,  estimated  —  Ib.  —  actual  .  . 
Form,  low,  massive,  drafty,  symmetrical 
Quality :  bone,  flat ;  tendons,  denned ; 

skin  and  hair,  fine 

Color,  according  to  breed 

Action  :  step,  elastic,  long  with  energy ; 

trot,  regular 

Attitude  :  members,  vertical  .... 
Temperament,  good  disposition,  docile  . 

2.  Head  and  neck  —  5  points 

Head,  proportionate  size,  broad  fore- 
head, straight  profile,  clear-cut  fea- 
tures   .  .  . 

Muzzle,  fine ;  nostrils,  large ;  lips,  thin 
and  even 

Eyes,  full,  clear,  bright,  and  intelligent  . 

Ears,  short,  clean,  fine,  and  directed  for- 
ward   

Neck,  well  muscled,  arched;  throat, 
clean,  with  long,  even  collar  line,  and 
well  carried 

3.  Fore  quarters  —  20  points 
Shoulders,  long,  extending  into  back; 

collar  line,  smooth  and  having  a  large 

bearing  surface 

Arm,   relatively   short,   well   set   back, 

muscled 

Forearm,  vertical,  wide,  heavily  muscled 
Knees,  clean  cut,  strongly  supported 
Cannons,  vertical ;  tendons,well-defined, 

9-10  inches  long,  free  from  blemishes 
Fetlocks,  wide,  thick,   clean,  free  from 

wind  puffs 


THE   HORSE 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  HORSES  —  DRAFT  (Continued) 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Pasterns,  angle  45  degrees,  not  too  long, 
showing  strength  ....... 

Feet,  even  sized,  large ;  horn,  dark  col- 
ored; sole,  concave;  bars,  strong; 
heels,  wide  apart ;  frog,  large  .  .  . 

4.  Body  —  10  points 

Chest,  ribs  well  sprung,  deep,  showing 
constitution,  half  the  height  of  horse  . 
Breast,  broad,  deep,  and  muscular  .  . 
Ribs,  long,  round  curvature,  well  sprung 
Back,  short,  straight,  muscular,  broad  . 
Loin,  wide,  short,  closely  coupled  .  . 
Underline,  long,  and  flanks,  low  .  .  . 

5.  Hind  quarters  —  30  points 

Hips,  level,  wide,  and  smooth  .... 

Croup,  wide,  long,  fairly  level  .... 

Tail,  set  high  and  well  carried       .     .     . 

Thighs,  well  muscled 

Quarter,  heavily  muscled  and  well  de- 
scended   

Gaskin,  medium,  straight,  wide,  well 
muscled 

Hocks,  clean  cut,  large,  straight,  free 
from  blemishes 

Cannons,  11-12  inches  long,  clean     .     . 

Fetlocks,  wide,  clean,  strong     .... 

Pasterns,  angle  of  60  degrees,  free  from 
puffiness 

Feet,  well  set;  concave  soles;  heels, 
high,  well  apart,  and  of  a  good  texture 
Total 


J 

roo 


6.  If  there  is  a  saddle  horse  in  the  community,  have  the  owner  bring 
it  to  school  and  let  him  demonstrate  the  gaits  of  a  saddle  horse.  A 
three-gaited  horse  must  go  the  walk,  trot,  and  canter.  A  five-gaited  horse 


66 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


goes  the  following  gaits  in  addition :    racks  and  paces,  or  foxtrots,  a  run- 
ning walk  or  a  slow  pace. 

7.    Score  a  light  horse  according  to  the  following  score  card : 


SCALE  OF  POINT 


1 .  General  appearance  —  43  points 

Age,  estimated 

Height,  estimated  ...     .     ;  |  *    .     . 

Weight,  estimated       ...     .     .     .     . 

Form,  symmetrical,  high,  light,  indica- 
tive of  good  action  

Quality :  bone,  fine ;  tendons,  defined ; 
skin  and  hair,  fine 

Action,  quick ;  step,  long,  true,  and  reg- 
ular ;  trot,  rapid  and  even  .... 

Attitude :  members,  vertical     .... 

Temperament,  lively,  energetic,  intelli- 
gent, docile 

2.  Head  and  neck  —  5  points 

Head,  lean,  clean  cut,  well-defined  fea- 
tures, carried  high ;  profile,  straight  . 

Muzzle,  fine;  nostrils,  large;  lips,  thin 
and  even 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  and  intelligent       .     . 

Ears,  short,  alert,  well  carried       .     .     . 

Neck,  well  fitted  to  head,  slightly  arched, 
clean,  large  windpipe 

3.  Fore  quarters  —  19  points 
Shoulders,  oblique  and  well  set  back 

Anns,  short,  well  set  back 

Forearms,    long,     12-13    inches,     well 

muscled,  and  clearly  defined      .     .     . 

Knees,  clean  cut,  wide,  deep,  well  sup- 
ported   

Camions,  10-11  inches  long;  tendons, 
well  attached  and  defined  .... 

Fetlocks,  free  from  puffiness     .... 

Pasterns,  long,  sloping 


THE  HORSE 


67 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Feet,  fair  size;  horn,  dense;  concave 
sole;  frog,  large  and  elastic;  heels, 
wide  apart 

4.  Body  —  8  points 

Chest,  higher  than  for  draft  horses, 
showing  constitution 

Withers,  clearly  denned  in  driving  horses, 
less  in  coach  horses 

Breast,  high  and  projecting       .... 

Ribs,  long  and  well  sprung        .... 

Back,  fair  length,  well  muscled      .     .     . 

Loin,  strongly  joined  to  hips     .... 

Underline,  long,  fairly  straight      .     .     . 

5.  Hind  quarters  —  25  points 

Hips,  rather  prominent 

Croup,  wide,  long,  muscular,  and  hori- 
zontal   

Tail,  set  high,  well  carried,  long,  full,  and 
fine 

Thighs,  15-16  inches  long;  stifle,  de- 
viated outward 

Buttock,  heavily  muscled 

Gaskin,  14-15  inches  long,  well  muscled, 
wide  

Hocks,   clean,   3   inches  deep,   straight 

Cannons,  11-12  inches  long;  tendons, 
well  defined 

Fetlocks,  clean,  no  wind  puffs        .     .     . 

Pastern,  long,  sloping       

Feet,  even  sized ;  concave  sole ;  heels  far 
apart,  tough  textured  

Total 


CHAPTER  V 
BEEF   CATTLE 

Importance  of  beef  cattle.  —  The  total  number  of  cattle  in 
the  United  States  in  1920  according  to  the  last  census  was 
68,922,764.  Of  this  number  31,386,378  were  dairy  cows,  leaving 
37,536,386  other  cattle  used  for  beef  production.  The  value  of 
all  cattle  exclusive  of  the  dairy  cows  was  $1,748,146,184.  The 
value  of  beef  cattle  per  head  was  $50. 

Beef  cattle  are  distributed  throughout  the  United  States,  but 
about  48  per  cent  are  found  in  the  North  Central  States  and 
Texas. 

Reasons  for  beef  production.  —  Beef  cattle  are  produced 
primarily  for  four  classes  of  people,  —  the  breeders,  the  feeders, 
the  retail  butchers,  and  the  consumers;  and  the  real  purpose 
of  beef  production  is  to  furnish  food  for  man.  In  judging  cattle, 
the  purpose  for  which  they  are  to  be  used  should  be  considered. 
The  butcher  considers  small  bones  important,  because  a  small- 
boned  animal  gives  a  higher  per  cent  of  dressed  carcass.  The 
feeder  wants  a  steer  that  will  put  on  a  maximum  amount  of  beef 
with  the  minimum  of  feed.  In  judging  breeding  stock,  breed 
characteristics,  conformation,  quality,  and  temperament  can 
hardly  be  overemphasized.  The  points  of  excellence  held  by 
the  breeder,  feeder,  butcher,  and  consumer  should  be  kept  in 
mind  when  judging. 

Note  to  the  Teacher:  The  materials  needed  to  do  the  Laboratory  Ex- 
ercises and  Home  Projects  suggested  at  the  close  of  this  chapter  are : 

A  beef  cow  to  show  the  beef  cuts ;  and  a  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  and  Angus 
cow  to  judge. 

68 


BEEF   CATTLE  69 

Leading  cattle-producing  nations.  —  The  number  of  cattle 
given  in  the  following  table  comprises  all  cattle.  Any  nation 
having  less  than  one  million  cattle  is  not  included.  The  reason 
for  giving  such  data  is  that  the  price  level  on  beef  cattle  and  beef 
products  is  largely  controlled  by  the  supply  of  cattle  in  the  lead- 
ing cattle-producing  nations.  The  first  ten  or  twelve  nations 
given  below,  generally  speaking,  control  the  beef  markets  of  the 
world.  The  leading  beef -producing  nations  and  the  number 
of  cattle  in  each  follows : 

THE  LEADING  BEEF-PRODUCING  NATIONS 

NUMBER  OF  NUMBER  or 

CATTLE  CATTLE 

British  India  ....  129,876,000  Italy 6,240,000 

United  States      .     .     .  68,922,764  Hungary 6,045,000 

European  Russia     .     .  38,373,000  Paraguay       5,550,000 

Brazil 37,500,000  Mexico 5,142,000 

Argentina       ....  27,392,000  Cuba 3,962,000 

Germany 16,904,000  Spain 3,712,000 

Asiatic  Russia     .     .     .  14,772,000  New  Zealand      ....  3,059,000 

France       12,374,000  Denmark       2,286,000 

Great  Britain      .     .     .  11,770,000  Sweden 2,250,000 

Australia 11,040,000  Chili 2,225,000 

Canada 9,477,000  Poland 2,014,000 

Uruguay    .     .     .     .     .  7,803,000  The  Netherlands     .     .     .  1,969,000 

Madagascar   ....  6,676,000  Japan 1,307,000 

The  United  States  has  about  one  seventh  of  the  cattle  of 
the  world.  The  cattle  of  the  United  States  are  generally  better 
than  the  cattle  of  some  of  the  other  countries. 

Characteristics  of  beef  cattle.  —  Beef  cattle  are  low,  compact, 
rectangular,  and  heavy.  They  are  "  bricklike  "  in  form.  The 
top  line  and  under  line  are  almost  straight  and  parallel.  The 
back  is  broad,  and  the  body  is  deep.  The  quarters  are  fleshy 
and  well  descended.  The  body  is  blocky.  Roughness  is  to  be 
avoided. 


70  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

The  head  is  a  good  index  to  the  body  characteristics.  A  steer 
with  a  wide  head,  large  box-shaped  muzzle,  and  large  nostrils  is 
usually  a  good  feeder.  Large  nostrils  show  breathing  capacity. 
The  ears  should  be  medium  in  size,  should  not  be  coarse,  and 
should  show  quality.  If  horns  are  present,  they  should  be  of 


Courtesy  of  the  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Purdue  University. 
FIG.  25.  —  A  typical  beef  type;   bricklike  in  conformation  from  side,  front,  and  top  view. 

fine  texture  and  rather  small.  A  steer  with  these  head  charac- 
teristics is  usually  compact,  blocky,  a  good  feeder,  and  will 
dress  out,  when  well  finished,  a  high  per  cent  of  edible  dressed 
meats. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  steer  with  a  thin  long  face,  a  thin  narrow 
forehead,  a  small  muzzle,  small  nostrils,  large,  coarse  ears,  and 
long,  rough,  oversized  horns,  is  generally  unprofitable.  The  fea- 
tures of  the  head  are  correlated  with  similar  features  in  the  rest 
of  the  body.  (See  Figs.  25  and  26.) 


BEEF   CATTLE  71 

Most  valuable  cuts.  —  The  picture  (Fig.  27)  shows  the  way  a 
steer  is  cut  for  the  retail  beef  trade.  It  is  taken  from  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  711,  and  shows  the  Chicago  retail  dealer's  method 
of  cutting  beef.  It  should  be  studied  because  it  shows  where 
beef  cattle  ready  for  slaughtering  should  be  well  formed  and 
finished.  The  region  from  which  the  porterhouse  steak,  prime 


Courtesy  of  the  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Purdue  University. 
FIG.  26.  —  An  inferior  feeder. 

of  rib,  and  sirloin  cuts  are  taken  is  important.  A  broad,  well- 
finished  back  is  a  sign  of  a  great  amount  of  meat  in  the  region  of 
these  valuable  cuts.  There  are  some  cuts  which  are  actually 
worth  less  after  the  steer  is  slaughtered  than  they  were  when  the 
steer  was  alive. 

A  steer  of  good  quality,  that  is  of  fine  bone,  skin,  and  hair,  well 
finished,  and  evenly,   firmly,   and   smoothly   fleshed,    weighing 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


FIG.  27.  —  Picture  of  a  i2oo-pound  beef 
steer,  showing  cuts  and  their  relative  value, 
according  to  a  large  packing  concern. 


1 200  pounds,  will  dress  out  about  800  pounds  (about  66f  per  cent) , 
and  of  this  about  700  pounds  of  meat  can  be  eaten.     Careful 

judging  of  beef  cattle  and  a 
close  study  of  the  score  card 
will  aid  a  great  deal  in  placing 
proper  estimates  upon  the  dif- 
ferent sections  of  a  beef  type. 
Beef  cattle  breeds.  —  All  the 
typical  beef  breeds  have  the 
characteristics  pointed  out  in 
the  above  paragraphs.  They 
vary  slightly  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  in  temperament,  in  color,  in  milk  produc- 
tion, and  in  other  minor  points.  For  a  more  extended  discus- 
sion refer  to  other  texts  and  especially  to  "  Types  and  Breeds 
of  Farm  Animals,"  by  C.  S.  Plumb.  The  most  important  breeds 
of  beef  cattle  are  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Aberdeen  Angus,  and 
Galloway. 

i.  Shorthorn  cattle,  a.  History.  The  origin  of  the  Shorthorn 
cattle  is  as  mixed  as  are  the  people  of  England.  The  native  Celts, 
the  Romans,  Anglo-Saxons  and  Jutes,  and  the  Normans,  all 
brought  cattle  that  served  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  Shorthorn 
breed.  However,  not  until  about  1775  to  1875  were  the  Short- 
horns developed  into  a  well-defined  breed.  The  following  men 
developed  slightly  different  types  of  Shorthorns  as  follows : 


BORN 

DIED 

TYPE 

Thomas  Bates  
Chas.  Collings  
Robt.  Collings  
John  Booth 

1775 
1749 
1750 

1780 

1849 
l836 
1820 
18^:7 

Dairy-beef  type 
Beef  type 
Beef  type 
Beef  type 

Richard  Booth  
Amos  Cruickshank  .... 

1788 
1808 

1864 
1895 

Beef  type 
Beef  type 

BEEF   CATTLE  73 

These  were  the  men  who  started  the  real  history  of  the  Short- 
horn cattle.  All  of  these  men  did  their  work  in  England  except 
Amos  Cruickshank,  who  was  in  Scotland. 

Although  Shorthorn  cattle  were  imported  into  the  United 
States  as  early  as  1783,  the  Ohio  Importing  Company,  organized 
in  1833,  was  the  most  important  agent  in  introducing  Shorthorn 
cattle  into  the  United  States.  The  first  importation  included 
nineteen  head.  In  1836,  forty-three  animals,  including  those 
that  were  imported  and  their  offspring,  were  sold  at  pub- 
lic auction  for  $34,540,  an  average  of  $803.25  per  head.  The 
Shorthorn  characteristics  were  so  excellent  that  they  were  soon 
distributed  throughout  the  country. 

No  other  breed  has  been  used  as  much  as  the  Shorthorn  in 
crossing  and  grading  up  native  cattle.  The  entire  West  and  the 
South  American  countries  have  been  materially  benefited  by 
mating  native  stock  with  Shorthorns.  The  pure  bred  sire  pro- 
duced an  animal  that  dressed  out  a  higher  per  cent  of  carcass, 
had  shorter  horns,  had  a  better  disposition  than  the  native  cattle, 
and  was  more  easily  handled.  The  rapid  elevation  of  good 
characteristics  as  a  result  of  crossing  was  a  splendid  financial 
investment.  Such  opportunities  in  breeding  up  herds,  though 
not  so  numerous  as  formerly,  are  still  present.  Ordinary  farm 
herds  may  be  improved  a  great  deal  by  mating  with  animals  of 
the  same  breed,  that  are  pure  bred  and  of  the  proper  conforma- 
tion. 

b.  Characteristics.  In  England  three  types  of  Shorthorns 
were  developed ;  namely,  the  beef  type,  the  dairy  type,  and  the 
dairy-beef  type  (dual  purpose).  Each  type  has  a  different 
conformation,  in  accordance  with  its  purpose.  In  the  United 
States,  the  beef  type  is  more  commonly  found,  because  our 
agricultural  conditions  are  somewhat  different  from  those  of 
England.  In  England  the  dairy  type  is  common,  and  the  English 


74 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


people  depend  largely  upon  the  Shorthorn  cow  for  their  milk 
supply.  "  At  the  London  Dairy  Show,  from  1894  to  1904  inclu- 
sive, the  first  place  in  both  milk  production  and  fat  production 
was  won  in  every  case  by  a  Shorthorn,  competing  against  Jerseys, 
Guernseys,  Ayrshires,  Red  Polled,  and  crosses."  1 


FIG.  28.  —  A  Shorthorn   type,    showing    conformation   and    head    characteristics   which 

stamp  this  breed. 

Shorthorns  are  red,  white,  and  roan.  A  mixture  of  red  and 
white  is  roan.  Some  breeders  have  placed  more  emphasis  upon 
color  than  upon  other  points.  This  is  a  mistake,  for  color  is 
a  matter  -of  secondary  importance.  Beef-producing  qualities 
should  be  placed  first.  The  Shorthorns  rank  first  among  the 
beef  breeds  in  udder  development  and  in  milk-producing  ability. 
They  may  occasionally  be  criticized  in  being  slightly  rangy  and 
in  having  prominent  shoulders.  They  may  be  regarded  as  the 

1  C.  H.  Eckles;  "  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production." 


BEEF   CATTLE 


75 


largest  of  the  beef  breeds.     The  males  weigh  from  1800  to  2400 
pounds,  and  mature  cows  from  1400  to  1800  pounds. 

2.  Hereford  cattle,  a.  History.  This  breed  originated  in 
the  county  of  Hereford,  England.  Their  origin  is  somewhat 
obscure,  and  according  to  the  opinions  of  some  authors  the 
Hereford  is  the  oldest  of  the  beef  breeds.  But,  like  the  Short- 
horn breed,  it  was  not  until  about  1723  that  the  Hereford  breed 
was  developed  with  definite  breed  characteristics. 


FIG.  29.  —  A  Hereford  cow,  showing  the  conformation,  color,  markings,  and  head  charac- 
teristics desirable  in  the  breed. 

Henry  Clay,  in  1817,  became  the  first  importer  of  Hereford 
cattle  into  the  United  States.  From  1840  to  1860,  a  great  many 
were  brought  to  America.  Because  the  Hereford  cattle  are 
superior  rustlers,  they  have  been  used  much  in  crossing  with 
native  Western  cattle.  Although  Herefords  have  not  been  used 
as  much  in  crossing  on  native  cattle  of  North  and  South  America 
as  have  the  Shorthorns,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  last  decade 
their  popularity  has  steadily  increased,  and  that  their  good 
qualities  are  becoming  realized  more  and  more  by  ranchmen. 


76  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

b.  Characteristics.  The  Herefords  are  typical  beef-produc- 
ing cattle.  They  are  not  quite  as  large  as  the  Shorthorn  breed. 
The  color  is  red,  with  a  white  head  and  the  white  extending  over 
neck  and  along  the  underline.  Six  white  tips  may  often  be  seen 
in  the  individuals  of  this  breed.  They  have  a  quiet,  docile  dis- 
position. In  milk  production  they  rank  low  and  are  often  criti- 
cized on  this  point. 

The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Herefords  are,  (i)  pre- 
potency, or  power  of  transmitting  definite  breed  characteristics, 
(2)  early  maturing  qualities,  and  (3)  grazing  attributes.  Where 
Hereford  cattle  have  been  crossed  with  other  breeds,  Hereford 
markings  usually  crop  out  in  the  offspring.  Their  vigorous 
constitution  is  often  transmitted  when  crossed  with  other  cattle. 
This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  in  spring  of  rib  they  are  un- 
equaled.  Hereford  cattle  mature  early  and  are,  therefore,  su- 
perior in  economical  meat  production.  They  are  good  grazers, 
and  as  rustlers  in  stalk  fields,  pastures,  and  on  the  range  where 
feed  is  scarce,  they  are  unexcelled. 

3.  Aberdeen  Angus  cattle .  a.  History.  The  Aberdeen  Angus 
originated  in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen,  Kincardine,  and  Forfar, 
Scotland.  The  first  printed  reference  to  this  breed  was  made  in 
1797. 

The  Angus  cattle  were  first  introduced  into  the  United  States 
in  1873,  when  George  Grant  of  Victoria,  Kansas,  imported  three 
bulls.  From  1875  to  I^^5  small  numbers  of  Angus  cattle  were 
imported  into  different  sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Large  numbers  are  found  in  the  "  corn  belt  "  states,  and  they 
are  widely  distributed  throughout  Europe. 

b.  Characteristics.  The  Angus  cattle  are  black,  polled,  and 
are  of  a  typical  beef  conformation.  They  are  not  quite  as  large 
as  the  Shorthorn  breed.  Their  bodies  are  more  cylindrical  than 
are  the  bodies  of  either  the  Shorthorn  or  Hereford  breeds.  Com- 


BEEF   CATTLE  77 

pactness  is  a  strong  feature  of  the  breed.  In  quality,  which 
refers  to  desirable  features  of  bone,  skin,  and  hair,  they  are  un- 
excelled. It  is  for  this  reason,  along  with  their  splendid  conforma- 
tion, that  they  dress  out  as  high  a  percentage  of  carcass  as  any 
breed.  The  Angus  cattle  are  good  grazers  and  feeders  and  are 


FIG.  30.  —  The  Aberdeen  Angus  steer.    An  example  of  a  fine  beef  type. 

unsurpassed  in  quality  of  flesh  produced.  For  beef  production, 
meeting  the  market  demands  of  the  commission  houses,  and  in 
show  ring  competition,  the  Angus  breed  ranks  high. 

4.  Galloways,  a.  History.  The  Galloways  came  from  Scot- 
land. Their  origin  is  more  or  less  obscure ;  the  name  is  from  the 
province  of  Galloway  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Scotland.  At 


78  LIVE   STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

first  the  cattle  of  Galloway  were  horned,  and  not  until  about 
1789  did  "  polled  "  cattle  appear.  In  1862  the  Galloway  Herd- 
book  Society  was  organized.  In  America  an  organization  to 
improve  the  Galloways  was  perfected  under  the  title  of  "  The 
American  Galloway  Cattle  Breeders'  Association,"  in  1882.  The 
Galloways  are  now  mainly  distributed  in  Scotland  and 
America. 

b.  Characteristics.  The  Galloways  are  black,  hornless,  and 
covered  with  a  heavy,  curly  coat  of  hair.  Hardiness  and  strength 
of  constitution  are  characteristics  of  the  breed.  They  are  well 
adapted  to  a  cold,  rigorous  climate.  Because  of  their  hardiness 
and  rustling  qualities,  they  are  popular  on  the  Western  and 
Northwestern  ranges.  The  breed  has  been  criticized  for  lack  of 
spring  of  rib,  late  maturity,  and  for  slow  response  to  feeding. 
These  points  are  being  overcome  to  a  large  extent  by  selective 
breeding. 

Management  of  beef  cattle.  —  The  number  of  beef  cattle  per 
one  thousand  people  in  the  United  States  decreased  from  660 
to  450  between  1900  and  1910.  The  reasons  for  this  decrease 
are: 

1.  The  ranges  of  the  West  are  being  plowed  up. 

2.  Farmers  can  often  get     ore  cash  out  of  the  sale  of  crops. 

3.  Tenant  farmers  are  often  unable  to  stock  the  rented  farms. 

4.  Growing  cities  have  increased  the  demand  for  milk  and  its 
products. 

Economic  production  of  beef.  —  In  producing  beef  more  eco- 
nomically three  points  must  be  considered  : 

1.  Relation  of  age  to  economic  gains 

2.  Relation  of  age  to  cost  of  fattening 

3.  Influence  of  degree  of  finish  upon  gains 

i.  Relation  of  age  of  cattle  to  economic  gains.  The  tabula- 
tion of  the  findings  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  shows 


.53 


79 


8o 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


the  amount  of  gain  in  weight  at  different  ages  and  the  amount 
of  food  required. 

RELATION  OF  AGE  TO  ECONOMIC  BEEF  PRODUCTION 


FIRST   YEAR 

SECOND  YEAR 

THIRD  YEAR 

Daily  gain                         .... 

Pounds 
"?  2 

Pounds 
I   2 

Pounds 
j  i 

Total  train                                    . 

78S 

AS6 

•7  CQ 

Feed  per  one  hundred  pound  gain 
milk  calf  us&d 

/"j 
AQ2 

*¥y 

OJ^ 

Concentrates    

I  SO 

480 

689 

Hay  . 

184 

776 

Succulent  feed      
Digestible  nutrients  per  one  hun- 
dred pound  gain    
Water  drunk  dailv             .... 

3H 

315 

27 

1928 
875 

4.2 

2637 
Il83 

4.7 

This  table  shows  that  the  first  year  the  calf  made  a  gain  of 
2.2  pounds  a  day ;  the  second  year,  1.2;  and  the  third  year,  i.i 
pounds  a  day.  If  the  feed  per  one  hundred  pound  gain  is  studied, 
some  interesting  points  are  brought  out.  The  total  digestible 
nutrients  required  to  produce  a  one  hundred  pound  gain  was 
315  pounds  during  the  first  year,  875  pounds  the  second  year, 
and  1183  pounds  the  third  year.  The  steer  weighed  1588  pounds 
when  slaughtered. 

We  should  not  conclude  from  this  table  that  it  is  more  econom- 
ical to  sell  the  steer  when  he  is  a  year  old ;  but  it  should  cause 
us  to  study  the  relation  of  age  to  economic  gains.  The  time  to 
sell  is  dependent  frequently  upon  local  or  other  conditions  and 
calls  for  judgment. 

2.  Relation  of  age  to  cost  of  fattening.  With  153  head  of 
cattle,  the  Ottawa  Experiment  Farms  found  the  results  shown 
in  the  following  table : 


BEEF   CATTLE  81 

RATE  AND  COST  OF  GAINS  FOR  FATTENING  STEERS  OF  VARIOUS  AGES 


AVERAGE  WEIGHT 
AT  BEGINNING 

AVERAGE  DAILY 
GAIN 

AVERAGE  COST  OF 
ONE  HUNDRED  POUND 
GAIN 

Calves  .  . 

Pounds 
•?O7 

Pounds 
I  8 

Dollars 

Yearlings  .  .  .  . 
Two-year-olds  .  . 
Three-year-olds  .  . 

oV/ 

833 

IOII 

1226 

1.6 

1.8 
i-7 

5-31 
5-62 
6.36 

This  table  indicates  that  calves  weighing  397  pounds  put  on  a 
one  hundred  pound  gain  at  a  cost  of  $4.22,  and  that  it  required 
$6.36  worth  of  feed  to  put  an  equal  weight  on  three-year-old 
steers,  weighing  1226  pounds. 

3.  Influence  of  the  degree  of  finish  upon  gains.  The  Kansas 
Station  found  the  following  regarding  the  amount  of  gain  re- 
quired to  produce  one  hundred  pounds  of  gain : 1 


GRAIN  FOR  ONE 
HUNDRED  POUND  GAIN 

INCREASE  OF  FEED 
REQUIRED 

Up  to    56  days  the  steers  required 

730  lb.  of  grain 

Up  to    84  days  the  steers  required 

807  lb.  of  grain 

10% 

Up  to  1  1  2  days  the  steers  required 

840  lb.  of  grain 

15% 

Up  to  140  days  the  steers  required 

901  lb.  of  grain 

23% 

Up  to  1  68  days  the  steers  required 

927  lb.  of  grain 

27% 

Up  to  182  days  the  steers  required 

1000  lb.  of  grain 

37% 

From  these  data  we  learn  that  feeders  find  that,  as  they  ap- 
proach the  finishing  period  of  fattening  cattle  for  market,  it  is 
more  difficult  to  secure  gains  in  weight.  The  results  of  these 
experiments  indicate  that  it  costs  heavily  to  fatten  the  steer 
thoroughly.  The  importance  of  selling  at  the  earliest  possible 
date  is  plain  from  the  table. 

1  Kansas  Bulletin,  No.  34. 


FIG.  32.  —  Points  of  the  beef  cow. 


Muzzle. 

Eye. 

Face. 


Forehead. 
Ear. 
Neck. 
Shoulder  vein. 

8.  Shoulder. 

9.  Brisket. 
10.   Jaw. 
n.    Breast. 


12.  Dewlap. 

13.  Arm. 

14.  Shin. 

15.  Fore  leg. 

16.  Chest. 

17.  Fore  flank. 

1 8.  Crop. 

19.  Ribs. 

20.  Back. 

21.  Loin. 

22.  Hip. 


Hind  flank. 

Rump. 

Tail-head. 

Pin  bone. 

Thigh. 

Twist. 

30.  Hock. 

31.  Shank. 

32.  Tail. 


23. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 


82 


BEEF   CATTLE  83 

Summary.  —  For  producing  beef  economically,  the  typical 
beef  breeds  are  superior.  They  dress  out  a  higher  per  cent  of 
dressed  carcass  and  make  gains  with  less  feed  than  do  scrubs 
or  dairy  types.  The  important  beef  breeds  are  the  Shorthorn, 
Hereford,  Angus,  and  Galloway.  In  judging  beef  cattle,  the 
region  of  the  valuable  cuts  should  be  given  preference,  though 
all  other  points  are  important.  Grass  lands,  corn  silage,  and 
some  grains  aid  in  raising  calves  economically.  Getting  cattle 
to  market  at  an  early  age  reduces  the  cost  of  production.  Secur- 
ing cattle  of  better  conformation  and  economical  feeding  and 
marketing  are  important  topics  for  the  beef  cattle  raiser,  because 
such  measures  decrease  the  costs  of  production  and  increase  the 
profits. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

i.  Have  pupils  take  a  census  of  all  cattle  not  dairy  cattle  of  the  dis- 
trict. Record  as  follows : 


NAME  OF  FARMER 

KIND  OF  CATTLE 

NUMBER 

2.  Locate  on  a  live  animal  the  beef  cuts.     Number  them  in  the  order 
of  their  value. 

3.  Score  all  beef  breeds,  if  possible,  according  to  the  following  score 
card. 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


BEEF  CATTLE  —  SCORE    CARD 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


1.  General  appearance  —  26   points 
Age,    estimated  —  years,    actual 

—  years 

Weight,  estimated  —  lb.,  actual 
—  lb.,  score  according  to  age  . 

Form,  straight  topline  and  under- 
line, deep,  broad,  low,  medium 
length,  symmetrical,  compact, 
standing  squarely  on  legs  .  . 

Quality,  bone  of  fine  texture,  fine 
skin,  silky  hair,  clearly  defined 
features  and  joints,  mellow 
touch  

Condition,  thick  even  covering  of 
firm  flesh  especially  in  regions  of 
valuable  cuts,  indicating  finish, 
light  in  offal  

2.  Head  and  neck  —  8  points 
Muzzle,    good    size ;     lips,    thin ; 

nostrils,  large  and  well  apart ; 

jaws,  wide . 

Face,      short,      broad ;     profile, 

straight 

Forehead,  broad 

Eyes,  large,  full,  clear,  bright 
Ears,  well  carried,  fine,  medium 

size 

Neck,  thin,  short ;   throat,  clean  ; 

dewlap,  slight 

3.  Fore  quarters  —  12  points 
Shoulder  vein,  full,  smooth      .     . 
Shoulders,  smoothly  covered  with 

firm  flesh,  compact      .... 


BEEF   CATTLE 


BEEF  CATTLE  —  SCORE  CARD  (Continued) 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Brisket,  broad,  full ;  breast,  wide 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  wide 

apart ;    forearm,   full ;    shank, 

fine  ;  feet,  sound     ..... 

4.  Body  —  32  points 

Chest,  deep,  broad  ;  girth,  large  ; 
fore  flank,  full 

Crops,  full,  thick,  even  with  shoul- 
ders   

Back,  broad,  straight,  medium 
length ;  thickly,  evenly,  and 
firmly  fleshed 

Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung,  closely 
set,  thickly,  evenly,  and  firmly 
fleshed  '. 

Loin,  broad,  straight ;  thickly, 
evenly,  and  firmly  fleshed  .  . 

Flanks,  full,  low 

5.  Hind  quarters  —  22  points 
Hips,  smoothly  covered,  propor- 
tionate width 

Rump,  long,  level,  width  well  car- 
ried back ;  thickly,  evenly,  and 
firmly  fleshed 

Pin  bones,  wide  apart,  not  promi- 
nent   

Tail,  fine,  tapering,  medium 
length  

Thighs,  deep,  wide,  well  de- 
scended, and  fleshed  .... 

Twist,  deep,  broad,  well  filled 

Legs,     straight,     short,     strong ; 
shank,  smooth  ;  feet,  sound 
Total    . 


5 
i 
i 

4 
6 

2 
100 


86  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

4.  Describe  in  a  two  hundred  fifty  word  paper  the  outstanding  char- 
acteristics and  contrasting  features  of  the  different  beef  breeds. 

5.  Study  your  cattle  barn,  and  report  on  the  same  as  to  the  follow- 
ing things:     (i)  room,    (2)  dryness,    (3)  light,    (4)  ventilation,    (5)  clean- 
liness, and  (6)  convenience. 


CHAPTER  VI 
DAIRY   CATTLE 

Importance  of  dairying.  —  According  to  the  United  States 
Census  for  1920,  there  were  31,386,378  dairy  cows  in  the  United 
States,  which  produced  7,805,238,000  gallons  of  milk.  The  total 
value  from  dairy  products  in  1919  was  $1,481,462,000.  This 
does  not  include  the  milk  and  cream  used  on  the  farms,  which 
would  approximate  closely,  or  probably  exceed,  the  above  figure. 
Wing  states  that,  in  1900,  the  average  production  per  cow  was 
3600  pounds  of  milk,  equivalent  to  about  150  pounds  of  butterfat. 
In  1920,  the  average  milk  production  of  the  average  dairy  cow 
was  about  3900  Ib.  according  to  the  Census  Report.  This  milk 
at  $2  per  hundredweight,  or  25  cents  per  pound  butterfat, 
would  yield  $78  or  $40  per  cow  respectively. 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  LIVE  STOCK  PRODUCTS  FOR  19-19 

Live  stock  products $2,667,738,000 

Dairy  products 1,481,462,000 

Chickens  and  eggs 1,048,000,000 

Wool  and  mohair       124,007,000 

Honey  and  wax 14,280,000 

Note  to  the  Teacher :  The  materials  needed  to  do  the  Laboratory  Ex- 
ercises and  Home  Projects  at  the  close  of  this  chapter  are : 

Dairy  cows  at  different  times;  an  eight-bottle  closed  Babcock  Tester 
(open  testers  are  inaccurate  and  dangerous) ;  the  necessary  glassware  and 
chemicals  needed  to  make  the  Babcock  test ;  samples  of  whole  milk  and 
skimmed  milk. 

87 


88 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


The  importance  of  milk  as  a  food  for  man  can  hardly  be  esti- 
mated, both  because  of  its  extensive  use  and  also  because  it 
contains  the  food  nutrients  in  a  better  proportion  than  any  other 
one  food.  Milk  is  a  well  balanced  food. 

More  attention  will  be  given  to  dairying  as  the  population 
becomes  denser.  The  cities  consume  large  quantities  of  milk 
and  milk  products.  Consequently  the  farmers  of  the  territory 
surrounding  the  city  devote  much  of  their  time  to  dairying, 
and,  where  shipping  facilities  are  good,  the  demand  for  milk  is 
so  great  that  it  is  often  shipped  two  hundred  miles  or  more  to 
market. 

Leading  dairy  states.  —  The  beef  industry  has  developed 
almost  entirely  upon  cheap  lands,  where  grass  is  abundant,  and 


From  The  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture. 
FIG.  33- 


in  the  corn  belt,  where  the  steer  can  be  finished  for  market.     The 
dairy  industry,  also,  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


89 


growth  of  grass  and  roughages  and  some  concentrates.  But 
an  additional  factor  determining  the  location  of  the  dairy  in- 
dustry is  the  market  and  centers  of  population.  This  is  especially 
true  where  whole  milk  is  sold.  The  distribution  of  dairy  cattle 
is  shown  in  the  preceding  map. 

The  ten  leading  dairy  states  in  the  order  of  the  number  of 
dairy  cattle  as  given  by  the  U.  S.  Yearbook  of  Agriculture  (1921) 
are: 

MILCH  COWS          0%  2%  4%  6%  8% 


UNITED  STATES 

WISCONSIN 

NEW  YORK 

MINNESOTA 

IOWA 

TEXAS 

PENNSYLVANIA 

KANSAS 

MISSOURI 

MICHIGAN 

JNDIANA 

REST  OF  STATES 


23,321,000 

1,828,000 

1,448,000 

1,395,000 

1,252,000 

1,184,000 

951,000 

898,000 

873,000 

856,000 

727,000 

11,909,000 


GRAPH  2. — The  ten  leading  states  in  dairy  cattle  production. 

The  ten  leading  dairy  states  have  about  half  of  the  dairy  cows 
of  the  United  States,  —  and  doubtless  these  states  have  the 
best  cows  on  the  average,  —  and  produce  over  one  half  of  the 
milk  and  milk  products  of  the  United  States. 

According  to  40,000  yearly  records  of  cows  tested  in  the  United 
States  in  cow-testing  associations,  the  average  yield  of  milk  is 
59-80  pounds  and  246  pounds  of  butterfat  in  a  year ;  while  the 


90  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

average  cow  in  the  United  States  produces  almost  4000  pounds  of 
milk  and  160  pounds  of  butterfat.  According  to  the  U.  S.  Year- 
book of  Agriculture  (1920)  the  United  States  holds  sixth  place 
among  14  prominent  nations  in  the  average  yield  of  milk  per 
dairy  cow,  being  excelled  by  The  Netherlands,  Switzerland, 
Denmark,  Germany,  and  Canada.  The  milk  production  per 
cow  in  these  countries  does  not  exceed  the  production  in  the 
United  States  on  account  of  superior  feeding,  but  because  the 
cows  there  are  carefully  tested  and  carefully  selected. 

Advantages  of  dairying.  —  In  thickly  populated  countries  and 
near  cities  where  land  is  high  priced,  nearly  all  farmers  give  up 
their  land  to  dairying,  truck  gardening,  and  poultry  raising.  On 
the  islands  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  land  is  said  to  fent  for  $60 
to  $70  per  acre,  and  in  Holland,  where  land  cannot  be  bought 
for  less  than  $1500  to  $2000  per  acre,  dairying  is  the  main  occu- 
pation. Land  near  our  American  cities  valued  at  from  $400 
to  $1000  per  acre  is  used  largely  for  dairying. 

Dairying  is  advantageous  because  it  aids  in  maintaining  soil 
fertility.  The  average  amount  of  solid  and  liquid  manure 
voided  in  a  year  by  a  thousand-pound  dairy  cow  is  about  1 2  tons. 
It  is  stated  that  such  manure  contains  fertilizing  materials  (plant 
food)  the  value  of  which  is  $2.74  per  ton.  Upon  this  basis  the 
value  of  the  fertilizer  materials  voided  by  a  cow  in  a  year  is 
$32.88.  However,  the  amount  of  manure  voided  is  almost  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  milk  produced ;  a  good  cow 
consumes  more  feed  and  hence  voids  more  manure.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  dairy  farms  become  more  productive  as  this 
type  of  farming  is  continued.  When  butterfat  is  sold  from  the 
farm,  very  little  soil  fertility  is  removed. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  will  give  a  comparison 
of  the  fertilizing  constituents  in  feeding  stuffs  and  animal 
products. 


DAIRY   CATTLE  91 

FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  FEEDING  STUFFS  AND  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  1 


FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  2000  POUNDS 

FERTILIZING 

VALUE  PER  TON 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash 

Dent  corn     v  '  . 

32.4  lb. 

13.8  lb. 

8.0  lb. 

$6.85 

Wheat       .     .     . 

39-6 

17.2 

10.6 

8.43 

Timothy  hay 

19.8 

6.2 

27.2 

5-20 

Red  clover  hay  . 

41.0 

7.8 

32.6 

9-36 

Animal  products 

Fat  ox  . 

46.6 

31.0 

3-6 

9.96 

Fat  pig      .     . 

35-4 

13.0 

2.8 

7.10 

Milk      .     .     . 

n.6 

3-8 

3-4 

2-43 

Butter  .     .     . 

2.4 

0.8 

0.8 

o.S7 

From  this  table  it  may  be  observed  that  if  a  ton  of  butterfat 
is  sold,  only  57  cents'  worth  of  soil  fertility  is  removed  from  the 
farm ;  while  if  an  equal  amount  of  dent  corn  is  sold,  $6.85  worth 
of  soil  fertility  is  removed. 

The  dairy  cow,  of  all  farm  animals,  is  the  most  economical 
producer  of  human  food ;  that  is,  a  dairy  cow  produces  more 
human  food  in  proportion  to  the  feed  fed  than  any  other  animal. 

HUMAN  FOOD  PRODUCED  BY  FARM  ANIMALS  FROM  ONE  HUNDRED  POUNDS 
OF  DIGESTIBLE  MATTER  CONSUMED  2 


MARKET- 

EDIBLE 

MARKET- 

EDIBLE 

ANIMAL 

PRODUCT, 
POUNDS 

PRODUCT, 
POUNDS 

ANIMAL 

ABLE 
PRODUCT, 
POUNDS 

PRODUCT, 
POUNDS 

Cow  (milk) 

139.0 

18.0 

Poultry  (eggs) 

19.6 

5-i 

Pig  (dressed)  . 

25-0 

15-6 

Poultry  (dressed) 

lS-6 

4.2 

Cow  (cheese)  . 

14.8 

9.4 

Lamb  (dressed) 

9.6 

3-2 

Calf  (dressed)  . 

36.5 

8.1 

Steer  (dressed) 

8.3 

2.8 

Cow  (butter)  . 

6-4 

5-4 

Sheep  (dressed) 

7.0 

2.6 

1  Henry  and  Morrison ;  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 

2  Jordan;  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals." 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


This  table  shows  that  with  100  pounds  of  feed  the  dairy  cow 
produced  18  pounds  of  edible  food  for  man ;  more  than  that 
produced  by  any  other  farm  animal.  The  table  deserves  close 
study. 

Eckles  and  Trowbridge,  of  the  Missouri  Station,  have  furnished 
the  following  data  on  the  point  that  the  cow  is  a  very  economic 
human  food  producer  as  compared  to  a  beef  steer. 


AVERAGES  OF  Cows 
PRODUCING  6000  POUNDS 
MILK 

18,405  POUNDS  MILK 

STEER,  WEIGHT 
1250  POUNDS 

Proteids    ... 

I87 

552 

172 

Fat       .... 

200 

618 

333 

Sugar    .... 

300 

920 

Ash       .... 

43 

128 

43 

Total     .     .     . 

730 

2218 

548 

It  took  the  dairy  cow  one  year  to  produce  2218  pounds  of 
human  food,  while  the  beef  steer  produced  only  548  pounds  in 
about  two  years.  The  cow  producing  6000  pounds  milk  produces 
730  pounds  of  edible  dry  matter  in  a  year.  The  sugar  in  milk 
is  worth  as  much  per  pound  for  human  food  as  ordinary  sugar. 

Five  essential  points  of  a  good  dairy  cow.  —  In  order  that 
the  value  of  a  dairy  cow  may  be  rightly  judged,  the  amount  of 
her  feed  should  be  known,  her  milk  should  be  weighed  and  tested 
for  butterfat.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  decide  upon  these 
points,  so  we  must  know  what  characteristics  to  look  for  in  a 
cow  which  show  milk-producing  capacity.  There  are  five  points 
that  are  essential  to  a  good  dairy  cow.  These  are : 

1.  Good  constitution 

2.  Capacity  for  food 

3.  Proper  temperament 

4.  Good  blood  circulation 

5.  Milk-producing  ability 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


93 


i.  Constitution  is  indicated  by  a  strong,  large  girth,  broad 
head,  box-shaped  muzzle,  and  large,  well-distended  nostrils.  A 
thin-chested,  narrow,  long-headed  animal  has  not  a  good  con- 
stitution; an  animal  that  has  very  small  nostrils  cannot  take 
in  large  volumes  of  air,  which  is  essential  to  a  long  life.  The 
average  economic  productive  period  of  a  dairy  cow  is  6  to  7  years. 


Courtesy  of  the  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Purdue  University. 
FIG.  34. —  Wedge  shape  as  seen  from  the  side. 

An  extraordinary  milk  yield  for  one  or  two  years  is  not  sufficient. 
A  cow  with  a  good  constitution  will  be  valuable  from  2  to  5  years 
longer  than  a  cow  with  a  poor  constitution. 

2.  If  a  cow  is  to  be  profitable,  she  must  have  a  large  capacity  for 
food.  Capacity  for  food  is  indicated  by  a  large  barrel  and  a  long 
body.  A  cow  with  a  short  body  and  a  small  stomach  girth  meas- 
ure cannot  consume  large  quantities  of  food  or  produce  much  milk. 
A  cow  measuring  34  inches  from  withers  to  hips,  74  inches  around 


94 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


the  heart  girth,  and  88  inches  around  the  barrel  has  one  and  one 
half  times  the  capacity  that  a  cow  has  that  measures  30,  65, 
and  75  inches,  respectively,  in  the  same  points.  Short-ribbed, 
slab-sided,  short-bodied  cows  can  consume  only  small  amounts 
of  feed  and  therefore  can  produce  only  small  amounts  of  milk. 
3.  Dairy  temperament  is  essential  to  a  good  dairy  cow.  A  cow 
with  such  a  temperament  is  angular,  triple  wedge-shaped,  and 

lacks  flesh.  A  dairy  cow  that 
is  well  fleshed  is  not  trans- 
forming enough  food  into 
milk,  but  is  converting  a  lot 
of  it  into  meat.  This  kind  of 
cow  is  a  beef-producing  cow. 
The  most  economical  milk 
producers  are  angular  and 
skinny.  They  have  prominent 
hip  bones,  poorly  covered  ribs, 
and  well-defined  vertebrae. 
The  best  milk-producing  cow 
is  triple  wedge-shaped;  that 
is,  from  a  side  view  she  shows 
less  depth  of  body  at  the  front 
than  she  does  at  the  rear. 
Secondly,  viewed  from  front, 
she  shows  more  width  at  hips 
than  she  does  through  the 
breast  and  chest.  Thirdly, 
as  we  look  downward  and 
backward  over  the  withers, 

the  third  wedge-shaped  conformation  may  be  seen.  This  type 
of  cow  is  the  best  milk  producer.  This  type  has  arisen  because 
certain  organs  of  the  dairy  cow  perform  more  work  than  others. 


Courtesy  of  the  Agricultural  Extension  Department, 
Purdue  University. 

FIG.  35.  —  Wedge  shape  as  seen  from  above 
and  behind. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


95 


The  digestive,  milk-secreting,  nervous,  and  circulatory  systems 
are  extremely  active,  and  are  therefore  greatly  developed. 

In  selecting  cows  for  milk  production,  the  type  of  cow  here 
described  is  very  important.  It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  not  all  cows  of  this 
type  are  good  milk  producers. 
Every  cow  is  an  individual 
when  we  come  to  consider  the 
amount  of  milk  that  she  can 
be  made  to  give.  A  cow  of 
good  type  may  be  a  poor  milk 
producer,  but,  in  general,  the 
best  milk  producers  are  cows 
from  the  best  type.  Profitable 
dairying  requires,  first,  that 
cows  of  the  right  type  be  se- 
lected, and  second,  that  every 
cow  be  tested  to  find  out  her 
milk-producing  capacity.  If, 
then,  the  cows  that  produce 
little  are  disposed  of,  a  good 
producing  herd  can  be  secured. 

To   show    the    relation    of 

dairy  temperament  and  dairy  form  to  economy  of  milk  produc- 
tion, Haecker  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  divided  cows 
into  four  groups  according  to  type.  The  returns  of  different 
types  are  given  in  the  table  on  page  96. 

This  table  will  afford  a  very  profitable  study,  and  its  lesson 
should  be  applied  in  the  development  of  the  dairy  herd. 
Economy  in  production  is  the  surest  way  of  increasing  dividends, 
and  such  savings  often  make  the  difference  between  success 
and  failure. 


Courtesy  of  the  Agricultural  Departmtnt,  Pttrduc 
University. 

FIG.  36.  —  Wedge  shape  as  seen  from  the 
front. 


96  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

ECONOMY  OF  MILK   PRODUCTION  OF  DAIRY  AND  BEEF  TYPES 


DRY  MATTER  CONSUMED 

NUMBER 

AVERAGE 

FEED  COST 

TYPES 

OF 

LIVE 

OF  POUND 

ANIMALS 

WEIGHT 

Daily 

Daily  per 
1000  Pounds 

Per  Pound 
Fat 

FAT 

Live  Wt. 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Cents 

Beef  type  .     .     . 

3 

1240 

20.8 

I6.7 

31-3 

17-5 

Less  beef  type    . 

4 

945 

2O.4 

21.0 

26.4 

I5-I 

Spare,  but  lack- 

ing depth   of 

body    .     .     . 

3 

875 

2O.O 

23.0 

25-5 

14.6 

Dairy  type   .     . 

12 

951 

2I.Q 

23.6 

21.2 

12.  1 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  cows  of  a  beef  type  and  beef  tem- 
perament produced  butterfat  at  a  cost  of  17.5  cents  per  pound, 


FIG.  37. —  Beef  and  dairy  type  in  outline.     Compare  their  conformation  and  function. 

and  that  the  dairy  type  produced  an  equal  amount  of  butterfat 
at  a  cost  of  12.1  cents  per  pound.     All  similar  tests  add  their 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


97 


testimony  to  the  often  emphasized  fact  that  type  and  temper- 
ament play  a  large  part  in  production. 

4.  Circulation.  Just  how  the  cow  digests  food  and  converts 
it  into  milk  is  a  topic  too  complicated  to  present  here.  Food 
must  be  transformed  and  conveyed  by  the  digestive  and  circula- 
tory systems  before  milk  can  be  produced.  "  Good  blood  cir- 


FIG.  38.  —  Examples  of  well-developed  milk  veins. 

culation  is  shown  by  a  network  of  veins  on  the  udder ;  and  by 
the  size  and  number  of  the  milk  wells  or  holes  in  the  abdomen 
through  which  these  blood  vessels  pass,  carrying  the  blood  on  its 
return  to  the  lungs  to  be  purified  and  to  be  pumped  back  again. 
Large  milk  wells  also  indicate  good  blood  circulation. 


98 


LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


FIG.  39.  —  Example  of  well-formed  udders.    Note  network  of  veins. 

"  Cows  with  small,  short,  straight  milk  veins,  and  only  two 
small  wells,  show  either  that  the  blood  circulation  is  small  and 
sluggish,  or  that  the  nutrients  are  being  conveyed  to  some  other 
part  of  the  body  to  be  converted  into  some  product  other  than 
milk  and  butterfat." 


DAIRY  CATTLE  99 

5.  Two  factors  which  are  essential  to  milk-producing  ability 
are  the  proper  form  and  texture  of  the  udder.  The  udder  should 
be  large,  wide,  long,  and  fairly  deep,  but  well  held  up,  extend- 
ing well  up  between  the  thighs  and  well  to  the  front.  An  udder 
that  lacks  width  and  length  but  is  deep  is  not  well  formed.  It 
should  be  evenly  quartered  and  symmetrical ;  the  teats  should 
be  of  proper  size,  and  evenly  and  well  placed. 


re  AT 


FIG.  40.  —  A  cross  section  of  a  cow's  udder,  showing  the  milk  cistern  and  milk  cells.    The 
size  and  number  of  openings  in  the  udder  determine  its  texture. 

The  udder  is  supposed  to  manufacture  all  the  constituents  in 
milk  except  water.  Butterfat,  casein,  and  sugar  are  all  formed 
in  the  udder.  It  must  have,  therefore,  a  great  deal  of  interior 
milk-producing  surface.  There  must  be  large  milk  cisterns,  and 
a  large  number  of  milk  cells,  as  indicated  in  the  above  figure. 
When  these  milk  cisterns  and  milk  cells  are  large  and  numerous, 
thousands  in  number,  the  empty  udder  is  soft,  pliable,  elastic, 
and  collapsed.  It  has  great  capacity  for  work  and  expansion 
during  the  production  of  the  milk.  Hard,  beefy  udders  have 
small  milk  cisterns,  few  and  small  milk  cells,  and  their  shape 
after  milking  is  nearly  the  same  as  before. 


100  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

Constitution,  capacity,  temperament,  circulation,  and  abil- 
ity—  these  are,  first  of  all,  essential  to  milk  production.  Other 
points  of  equal  importance,  such  as  feeding,  care  and  manage- 
ment, cost  to  produce  milk,  housing,  and  aids  to  the  highest 
milk  production  are  discussed  in  later  paragraphs. 

Major  dairy  breeds.  —  The  major  dairy  breeds  are  the  Jer- 
seys, Guernseys,  Holstein-Friesians,  and  Ayrshires. 

i.  Jerseys,  a.  Origin  and  history.  The  Jersey  cattle  are 
native  to  the  Channel  Islands,  which  are  in  the  English  Channel 
between  England  and  France.  Although  the  Jersey  breed  traces 
back  many  years,  their  real  history  dates  back  from  about  1763 
to  1789.  Since  then  their  purity  as  a  breed  has  been  protected 
by  law.  In  1789,  an  act  was  passed  that  no  cattle  could  be 
imported  into  the  island  of  Jersey  unless  they  were  to  be  slaugh- 
tered within  24  hours  after  their  arrival. 

The  island  of  Jersey  is  about  n  miles  long  and  averages  4 
miles  wide,  and  contains  about  28,717  acres.  From  ten  to 
twelve  thousand  cattle  are  kept  upon  it,  however,  or  about  one 
cow  to  every  2.4  acres  of  land. 

In  1850,  some  Jersey  cows  were  brought  to  Hartford,  Connecti- 
cut. Since  then  many  Jerseys  have  been  imported  into  the 
United  States,  and  now  they  are  the  most  popular  of  all  the  dairy 
breeds  because  of  their  efficiency  in  producing  rich  milk,  and 
because  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  has  advertised  the  good 
points  of  the  breed.  Large  dairies  of  Jersey  cattle  are  found  in 
the  United  States,  France,  Canada,  England,  and  Australia. 

b.  Characteristics.  The  Jersey  is  the  smallest  of  the  main 
dairy  breeds,  weighing  from  850  to  1000  pounds.  They  are  fawn- 
like  in  color,  with  occasional  white  spots.  The  muzzle,  tongue, 
and  switch  are  generally  black.  They  are  usually  considered 
the  best  dairy  type,  being  angular  and  wedge-shaped.  Their 
dairy  temperament  is,  with  few  exceptions,  typical  of  a  perfect 


101 


102 


LIVE   STQCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


dairy  .cow..<  -This  'is- shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Jersey  seldom 
becomes  -fleshy  when  producing  milk,  for  all  of  the  food  consumed 
is  transformed  into  milk.  The  Jerseys,  as  a  breed,  are  more 
sensitive  and  nervous  than  other  breeds.  When  properly  handled 
they  become  gentle,  but  when  any  unusual  thing  happens  they 
are  easily  frightened.  If  Jerseys  are  not  accustomed  to  them, 
children  may  endanger  their  lives  by  going  into  a  lot  where 
there  are  Jersey  cattle. 

The  Jersey  is  a  poor  producer  of  beef.  Their  ability  to  make 
gains  is  comparatively  low,  and  their  ability  to  dress  out  a  high 
per  cent  of  carcass  is  still  less. 

c.  Dairy  characteristics.  The  Jersey  breed  is  not  the  most 
economical  producer  of  quantity  of  milk.  But  they  will  produce 
more  butterfat  with  the  same  amount  of  feed  than  any  other 
breed.  From  a  large  number  of  butterfat  tests,  the  following 
averages  have  been  found  for  the  breeds  named : 1 


SOLIDS 

BUTTERFAT  TEST 

i.  Jersey    
2.    Guernsey    ...              . 

14.70 
14  71 

5-6 

5-2 

3     Devon 

•TA    CO 

4  6 

4.   Shorthorn   

11    ^8 

4.4 

5    Ayrshire 

12  6l 

3  6 

6.   Holstein-Friesian      

11.85 

3-4 

Jersey  milk  is  rich,  of  a  deep  yellow  color,  with  large  butterfat 
globules.  Milk  with  large  butterfat  globules  creams  easily. 

The  Jersey  is  a  persistent  milker  and  as  a  family  cow  it  has 
scarcely  an  equal.  A  few  yearly  records  of  the  leading  Jerseys 
follow : 

1  Cornell  Experiment  Station. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


103 


NAME  OF  Cow 

POUNDS  MILK 

POUNDS  BUTTERFAT 

Sophie  igth  of  Hood  Farm  .  .  . 
Spermfield  Owl's  Eva  
Eminent's  Bess 

17,557 
16,457 
18  782 

999 
993 

062 

Jacoba  Irene  

17,253 

952 

2.  Guernseys,  a.  Origin  and  history.  The  Guernsey  cattle 
were  developed  on  the  island  of  Guernsey,  another  of  the  Channel 
Islands  group  just  off  the  coast  of  France  in  the  English  Channel. 
The  island  of  Guernsey  is  about  nine  and  one  half  miles  long 
and  averages  in  width  nearly  3  miles,  and  contains  about 
15,750  acres.  Upon  this  island  are  kept  5000  to  8000  cattle. 

It  is  stated  upon  good  authority  that  one  hundred  years  ago 
the  Guernseys  and  the  Jerseys  were  almost  the  same  in  color 
and  size.  The  purity  of  the  Guernsey,  like  that  of  the  Jersey 
breed  is  now  protected  by  law. 

Guernsey  cattle  were  not  introduced  into  the  United  States 
in  large  numbers  until  1880.  To-day  the  Guernseys  are  found 
extensively  in  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Wisconsin,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  some  of  the  other  leading  dairy  states. 

Although  the  Guernseys  have  been  widely  distributed,  they 
are  found  only  in  small  numbers  in  the  United  States,  England, 
and  Canada.  Plumb  says  in  his  book,  "  Types  and  Breeds  of 
Farm  Animals,"  that  it  has  never  been  clear  to  him  why  the 
Guernseys  have  not  attracted  more  attention  in  the  United 
States.  "  It  is  a  dairy  breed  of  the  highest  merit,  as  repeated 
tests  have  shown  ;  yet  it  is  quite  limited  in  development  and  does 
not  seem  to  get  much  foothold  in  some  of  our  greatest  dairy 
•states,  especially  in  the  Mississippi  Valley." 

b.  Characteristics.  In  general  appearance  the  cattle  of  this 
breed  are  about  100  pounds  larger  than  the  Jerseys,  have  coarser 


104 


DAIRY  CATTLE  105 

bones  and  features,  and  are  nearly  perfect  in  dairy  type.  Their 
color  ranges  from  an  orange  to  a  lemon  fawn,  with  white  markings. 
The  udder  of  the  Guernsey  is  somewhat  larger  than  that  of  the 
Jersey,  is  well  held  up,  and  extends  further  to  the  front.  The 
skin  secretions  are  very  yellow. 

The  cattle  of  this  breed  are  slower  and  not  so  nervous,  excit- 
able, and  irritable  in  temperament  as  the  Jerseys. 

c.  Dairy  characteristics.  The  Guernsey  cattle  are  persistent 
milkers,  and  in  quality  of  milk  produced  they  rank  a  close  second 
to  the  Jerseys.  Their  milk  is  very  yellow  and  has  large  fat 
globules.  The  butter  made  from  Guernsey  milk  is  very  yellow. 

The  records  of  a  few  leading  Guernsey  cows  follow : 


NAME  OF  Cow 

POUNDS  OF  MILK 

POUNDS  BUTTERFAT 

Murne  Cowan  
May  Rilma  ...          ... 

24,008.0 
10  6?3  O 

1098.18 

IO73  4.1 

Spotswood  Daisy  Pearl  .     .     . 

18,602.0 

957-38 

3.  Holstein-Friesians.  a.  Origin  and  history.  The  native 
home  of  the  Holstein  cattle,  as  they  are  usually  called  in  the 
United  States,  is  Holland,  in  the  province  of  Friesland.  For 
over  2000  years  they  have  been  bred  there,  and  are  therefore  the 
oldest  breed  of  cattle.  From  the  ninth  century  to  the  present 
day,  Holland  has  been  a  great  producer  and  exporter  of  milk, 
butter,  and  cheese. 

A  few  Holstein  cattle  were  imported  into  New  York  as  early 
as  1795.  They  were  not  imported  in  large  numbers  until  1861. 
In  1873  the  first  Holstein  Association  was  formed,  known  as  the 
Holstein  Herd  Book  Association,  and  in  1879  the  Dutch  Friesian 
Association  was  formed.  These  two  were  fused  in  1885  under  the 
name  Holstein-Friesian.  Although  the  Jersey  breed  was  intro- 


io6 


DAIRY  CATTLE  107 

duced  into  the  United  States  first  and  enthusiastically  advertised, 
the  Holstein  cattle  are  at  present  largely  used  in  the  leading  dairy 
states ;  namely,  Wisconsin,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Ohio. 

b.  Characteristics.     In  general  appearance  the  Holstein  cattle 
are  not  so  typically  a  dairy  form  as  are  the  Jerseys,  but  approach 
slightly  the  beef  type.     They  are  the  largest  dairy  breed,  males 
weighing  from  1800  to  2000  pounds  and  females  from  1200  to  1600. 
There  has  been  and  is  a  tendency  toward  the  development  of 
Holstein  cattle  resembling  the  dairy  type.     This  has  been  due 
largely  to  the  opinions  of  judges  passed  on  Holstein  cattle  at 
fairs.     The  color  is  black  and  white,  varying  in  different  localities. 
American  breeders  generally  prefer  cows  with  more  than  one  half 
white.     The  udder  of  the  Holsteins  is  large,  U-shaped,  and  usually 
very  deep  but  not  extended.     The  Holstein  cattle  are  docile, 
gentle,  and  easily  handled. 

c.  Dairy  characteristics.     The  Holstein  cattle,  as    a    breed, 
produce  quantity  of  milk  more  economically  than  do  the  cows  of 
any  other  breed ;  that  is,  with  a  given  amount  of  feed  they  will 
produce  more  milk  than  any  other  cattle.     The  milk  of  the 
Holstein  cattle  is  lighter  in  color,  and  contains  less  fat  than  the 
milk  of  other  breeds  of  cattle.     The  small  butterfat  globules  in 
Holstein  milk  do  not  rise  to  the  top  as  easily  nor  as  rapidly  as  the 
large  butterfat  particles  in  Jersey  and  Guernsey  milk.     It  is 
for  this  reason  that  milk  from  Holstein  cows  sustains  a  greater 
loss  of  butterfat  in  the  skim  milk  than  the  milk  from  other  breeds, 
especially  where  the  gravity  system  of  separating  is  used.     Ma- 
chine separation  is  usually  efficient  even  if  the  fat  globules  are 
small. 

Since  the  butterfat  from  the  Holstein  is  lighter  in  color  than 
that  of  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys,  the  cream  and  butterfat  from 
this  breed  is  also  lighter.  Some  people  think  that  a  light-colored 


io8  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

butter  is  not  rich  and  will  not  pay  so  high  a  price  for  it  as  for 
darker  butters.  Holstein  cattle,  because  of  the  large  quantity 
of  milk  produced  and  also  because  the  fats  and  the  solids  not  fat 

are  well  balanced,  are  well  adapted  to 

A     A  large  Butter!  at  Globule 

•     Holstein  Fat  Globules        the  condition  in  which  milk  is  retailed 
to  the  consumer.     Holstein  milk  is  easily 

FIG.  44.  —  Showing  the  com-      ..  .   ,  .        ,  ..  . 

parative  sizes  of  small  and  digested  because  the  butterfat  globules 
large  fat  globules.  Fat  globules  are  small  and  expose  more  surface  to  the 
Wh  l  digestive  fluids.  Holstein  milk  is  better 


suited  for  children's  use  than  the  milk 

produced  by  other  cattle,  for  the  reasons  that  the  butterfat  par- 
ticles are  smaller  on  the  whole,  and  the  total  solids  in  the  milk 
are  usually  less,  making  the  milk  easily  digestible.  The  popu- 
larity of  Holstein  milk  is  increasing,  especially  where  whole  milk 
is  wanted  for  family  use. 

d.  Methods  of  handling  dairy  cattle  in  Holland.  Much  of 
the  country  of  Holland  is  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  which  is  held 
back  by  extensive  dikes  and  embankments.  The  land  is  well 
drained  and  very  fertile  ;  although  it  is  seldom  sold,  it  is  valued 
at  from  $1200  to  $2000  per  acre.  The  fertile  soil  of  Holland 
produces  a  luxuriant  growth  of  grass  and  hay,  on  which  the 
cattle  graze  from  May  to  October.  The  people  of  Holland  very 
rarely  feed  grain  to  their  cattle.  This  diet  of  grass  and  little 
grain  is  probably  the  reason  why  Holstein  cattle  give  such 
a  large  quantity  of  milk,  and  why  the  cream  is  not  so  rich  in 
butterfat. 

From  October  to  May  the  cows  are  kept  in  a  stable  adjoining 
the  house,  from  which  doors  lead  into  the  stalls.  This  is  the 
reason  that  Holstein  cattle  are  so  gentle.  The  stables  are  kept 
very  clean  and  sanitary.  In  summer  the  cows  are  not  driven 
home  to  be  milked,  but  are  milked  in  the  pasture,  so  that  the 
cow  will  not  grow  tired.  The  people  of  Holland  were  the  first  to 


DAIRY   CATTLE 


109 


form  associations  to  test  the  producing  power  of  cows  and  to 
set  a  standard. 

e.  Advanced  Registry  Official  (A.  R.  O.).  The  Babcock  test 
was  invented  about  1890  in  Wisconsin.  New  York  was  the  first 
to  make  practical  use  of  it.  The  people  of  New  York  began 
to  organize  cow- testing  associations  in  1894  and  set  up  the  follow- 
ing minimum  requirements  for  advanced  registry  for  Holstein 
cows: 

2 -year-old  cow  must  produce  7.2  pounds  fat  in  7  days 
3 -year-old  cow  must  produce  8.8  pounds  fat  in  7  days 
4-year-old  cow  must  produce  10.4  pounds  fat  in  7  days 
5-year-old  cow  must  produce  12.0  pounds  fat  in  7  days 


The  above  tests  were  made  by  qualified  men  sent  out  from  the 
experiment  stations.  Although  the  test  extended  only  over 
seven  days,  it  paved  the  way  for  the  formation  of  the  best  types 
of  cow-testing  associations  in  which  the  tests  are  made  over  the 
entire  lactation  period.1 

To  sum  up,  Holstein  cows  have  a  vigorous  constitution,  quiet 

1  The  butterfat  requirements  for  the  major  dairy  breeds  for  A.  R.  O.  are  as 
follows : 


JERSEY,  GUERNSEY, 
AND  HOLSTEIN 

AYRSHIRE 

BROWN  Swiss 

Age 

Fat 

Per  cent 

Fat 

Per  cent 

Fat 

Per  cent 

Two  . 
Three    .     . 
Four      .     . 
Five  .     .     . 
Six    ... 

250.5 

70 

214-3 

66 

222.0 

66 

287.0 

80 

236.0 

73 

238.4 

70 

323.5 

90 

27Q.O 

87 

271.4 

80 

360.0 

100 

322.0 

100 

304.1 

QO 

337-0 

IOO 

The  per  cent  indicates  what  amount  of  fat  may  be  expected  from  a  cow  during 
any  year  of  the  milking  period. 


no 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


temperament,   produce  an  abundance   of  milk,   are  free  from 
disease,  and  have  a  good  family  history. 

The  records  of  a  few  leading  Holstein  cows  follow : 


NAME  OF  Cow 

POUNDS  MILK 

POUNDS  BUTTERFAT 

Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby  .... 

27,761 

1205 

Finderne  Pride  Johanna  Rue      .     . 

28,403 

1176 

Pontiac  Clothilde  De  Kol      ... 

25,318 

1017 

Colantha  4th's  Johanna    .... 

27,432 

998 

4.  Ayr  shires,     a.   Origin  and  history.     This  breed  of  Scotch 
dairy  cattle  was  developed  in  the  county  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland. 

Although  the  Ayr- 
shire cattle  were 
mentioned  in  Scot- 
tish literature  as  early 
as  1750,  not  until 
about  1825  to  1850 
did  the  breed  assume 
definite  characteris- 
tics. Holsteins,  Dur- 
hams,  and  Jerseys 
were  used  as  the 
foundation  sources 
of  this  breed.  Ayr- 
shires  were  imported 
into  the  United  States 

as  early  as  1822,  but  on  account  of  small  teats  their  popularity 
decreased,  and  the  breed  was  soon  lost.  Within  recent  years  a 
considerable  number  have  been  imported,  but  because  of  the 
fact  that  they  were  not  advertised  they  have  not  been  exten- 
sively used. 


FIG.  45 .  —  An  Ayrshire  cow,  showing  the  conformation, 
red  and  white  color,  upturning  horns,  and  well-formed 
udder  that  stamp  this  breed. 


DAIRY   CATTLE 


in 


The  Ayrshires  are  mainly  distributed  in  Scotland,  Canada, 
Australia,  the  United  States,  Russia,  Norway,  and  Sweden. 
They  are  better  adapted  than  other  breeds  to  severe  climates, 
scant  feed,  and  rough  land,  and  are,  therefore,  generally  found  in 
such  places.  In  the  United  States  they  are  found  in  New  England 
and  the  Ozark  Plateau. 

b.  Characteristics.  Ayrshire  cattle  are  red,  brown,  and  white 
in  color.  They  are  much  larger  than  the  Jerseys  but  smaller 
than  the  Holsteins.  They  are  good  milkers,  but  do  not  produce 
as  much  milk  as  the  Holsteins,  nor  as  rich  milk  as  the  Jerseys. 
It  is  largely  because  of  their  failure  to  excel  in  one  of  these  two 
points  that  the  popularity  of  the  Ayrshires  has  not  been  greater. 
The  horns  of  this  breed  turn  outward  and  upward  and  are  white 
with  black  tips.  Their  udders  are  uniform  and  almost  perfect. 
They  are  well  held  up,  are  wide,  and  extend  well  forward  on  the 
body.  Plumb  states  that  the  udder  development  of  the  modern 
Ayrshires  presents  a  higher  average  perfection  of  form  than  does 
that  of  any  other  breed.  Their  temperament  is  good. 

The  milk  of  Ayrshire  cattle  contains  a  great  deal  of  casein. 
In  their  native  home  in  Ayrshire  the  milk  is  used  almost  entirely 
in  the  manufacture  of  cheese. 

The  leading  records  of  the  Ayrshires  up  to  the  present  are  as 
follows : 


NAME 

POUNDS  MILK 

POUNDS  BUTTERFAT 

Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate  4th  .  . 
Garclaugh  May  Mischief  .... 
Lily  of  Willowmoor  

23,022 
25,328 
22  Io6 

918 

897 

889 

Auchenbrain  Yellow  Kate  3d  .  . 

12,123 

888 

The  cost  of  milk  production.  —  It  is  impossible  to  handle  this 
large  topic  exhaustively  in  this  small  treatment.     The  discussion 


112 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


here  is  merely  suggestive.     Some  further  points  may  be  worked 
out  by  teacher,  pupil,  and  farmer. 

Large  production  lowers  the  cost.  —  A  cow  that  yields  3900 
pounds  of  milk  per  year  does  not  produce  milk  as  cheaply  as  a 
cow  that  produces  10,000  pounds  per  year.  The  first  figure 
given  is  approximately  the  average  production  of  the  dairy  cows 
of  the  United  States. 


COST  OF  MILK  FROM  Cows  PRODUCING  DIFFERENT  AMOUNTS 


POUNDS  MILK  PER 
YEAR 

COST  TO  PRODUCE  too 
POUNDS  OF  MILK 

COST  OF  PRODUCIVG 
A  QUART  OF  MILK 

3,000 

$1.70 

3.3  cts. 

4,000 

1.25 

2-5 

5,000 
6,000 

I.OO 

•S3 

2.0 

i-7 

7,000 
8,000 

•71 
.62 

i-3 

1.2 

9,000 

•55 

I.I 

10,000 

•50 

I.O 

The  assumption  that  it  costs  $50  to  keep  a  dairy  cow  for  one 
year  is  the  basis  of  the  foregoing  table.  We  have  learned  that 
the  dairy  type  of  cow  produces  milk  at  less  cost  than  the  beef 
type.  The  dairy  cow  is  angular,  showing  that  she  transforms 
nearly  all  the  food  she  eats  into  milk ;  the  beef  cow  is  fat,  show- 
ing that  she  transforms  all  her  food  into  fat.  The  cost  of  milk 
production  is  from  25  to  30  per  cent  less  from  dairy  types  than 
from  beef  types. 

Cows  freshening  in  the  fall  produce  milk  more  cheaply.  — It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  cows  freshening  in  the  fall  produce 
from  25  to  35  pounds  of  butterfat  more  per  year  than  cows  fresh- 
ening in  the  springtime.  This  is  because  the  cow  has  two  periods, 


DAIRY   CATTLE  113 

one  in  the  fall  and  another  in  the  spring,  when  the  milk  flow 
is  large.  The  increase  in  butterfat  is  equal  to  an  increase  of 
from  600  to  800  pounds  of  milk.  This  is  approximately  from 
one  sixth  to  one  fifth  of  the  total  production.  Therefore,  if  it 
costs  $50  to  keep  a  cow  for  one  year,  the  cost  of  milk  production 
will  be  decreased  from  about  16  to  20  per  cent  by  cows  calving 
in  the  fall. 

Production  covering  a  long  number  of  years  lessens  the 
cost  of  milk  production.  —  The  cost  of  producing  calves  and 
heifers  until  they  are  24  months  old  has  been  found,  by  Bennett 
and  Cooper  of  Wisconsin,  with  117  calves,  to  be  as  follows : 

COST  OF  REARING  DAIRY  HEIFERS  IN  WISCONSIN  l 


COST  TO  ONE  YEAR 

COST  TO  Two  YEARS 

i.   Initial  value  of  calf      .     . 
2     Feed 

$  7-04 

2A.  67 

$   7-04 

AO  82 

3.   Labor   
4    Other  costs 

4-45 
6  36 

4u-°o 

7.81 

T  -7      7-2 

XO'/O 

Gross  cost    .... 
Credit  for  manure    .     . 

$42.52 
3.00 

$69.41 

8.00 

Net  cost 

$3O  ^2 

$61   AT 

A  cow  giving  milk  only  from  the  time  she  is  24  to  36  months 
old  would  have  to  'produce  an  extremely  large  quantity  of  milk 
to  pay  for  the  cost  of  raising  the  heifer,  and  the  cost  of  keeping 
the  cow  during  the  first  years  of  milk  production.  But  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  over  a  long  number  of  years  reduces  the  cost  of 
milk  production  per  year.  The  following  table  shows  twelve 
years  of  profitable  milk  production : 


Henry  and  Morrison;  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


H4  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

RECORD  OF  CYLENE  JEWEL  (UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA  Cow) 


YEAR 

MILK 

BUTTERFAT 

TEST 

BUTTERFAT 

LACTATION 
PERIOD 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Weeks 

1902-03  .... 

6,413.6 

3.28 

210.24 

55 

1904-05  .... 

6,231.3 

3.16 

197.20 

52 

1905-06  .... 

8,061.9 

3-21 

258.86 

42 

1906-07  .... 

7,373-9 

3-31 

244-33 

44 

1907-08  .      .      .      . 

11,067.8 

3-24 

358.59 

52 

1908-09  .... 

7,487-3 

2.99 

224.25 

42 

1909-10  .... 

11,853-8 

2.93 

346.99 

51 

1910-11  .... 

11,436.0 

3.28 

375-39 

55 

1911-12  .... 

12,704.7 

3.16 

402.05 

46 

1912-13  .... 

10,713.1 

3-02 

323.06 

46 

1913-14  .... 

12,697.9 

3-93 

499.63 

44 

1914-15  .... 

12,811.1 

2.89 

370-09 

55 

Total  .... 

118,852.4 

38.40 

3810.68 

584 

Average   .     .     . 

9,904.364 

3-20 

317.556 

48.66 

Keeping  accurate  records  such  as  the  above  does  more  to  put 
dairying  on  a  sound  basis  than  any  other  one  thing. 

Treating  with  kindness,  being  regular  in  feeding  a  balanced 
ration,  providing  good,  clean,  sanitary  quarters,  supplying  plenty 
of  clean,  pure,  medium-warm  water,  and  allowing  the  cow  a  rea- 
sonable amount  of  exercise,  raising  the  calves  on  skim  milk,  - 
all  aid  in  the  economical  production  of  milk. 

Composition  of  milk  and  its  products.  —  As  we  have  said  be- 
fore, milk  is  of  such  a  composition  that  it  can  nourish  all  tissues 
of  the  body  more  nearly  than  any  other  food.  For  this  reason 
it  is  the  only  food  for  many  young  animals  for  about  the  first 
eight  months.  The  tissues  of  the  body  are  made  up  of  water, 
mineral  matter,  fatty  tissue,  and  protein  tissue.  These  are  all 


Courtesy  of  University  of  Minnesota. 


DAIRY  CATTLE  115 

found  in  milk  in  such  proportion  that  every  tissue  of  the  entire 
body  may  be  well  nourished.  There  is  no  other  single  food 
that  will  sustain  life  longer.  The  composition  of  other  foods 
may  well  be  compared  with  that  of  milk,  for  milk  gives  a  good 
basis  on  which  the  value  of  other  foods  may  be  estimated. 

THE  AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 

1.  Water 87.4  per  cent 

2.  Fat 3.7  per  cent 

3.  Casein  and  albumen       3.2  per  cent 

4.  Milk  sugar 5.0  per  cent 

5.  Ash 0.7  per  cent 

Total     . .     .     100.0  per  cent 


According  to  a  Federal  law,  milk  must  contain  8.5  per  cent 
of  solids  not  fat,  and  3.25  per  cent  or  more  fat. 

In  order  that  milk  may  be  of  the  best  quality  it  must  be  pro- 
duced by  healthy  cows  under  sanitary  conditions.  The  cow, 
the  surroundings,  the  utensils,  and  the  milker  must  all  be  free 
from  dirt  and  disease.  Bacterial  life  in  milk  may  be  destroyed 
by  pasteurization.  The  germs  of  tuberculosis,  diphtheria,  and 
scarlet  fever  may  be  destroyed  in  this  way,  also,  but  it  is  much 
better  to  produce  pure  milk. 

In  the  modern  creamery,  milk  is  skimmed  with  separators. 
The  skim  milk  remaining  contains  all  the  constituents  given  in 
the  table  excepting  the  butterfat.  Under  farm  methods  of 
skimming  about  0.3  to  0.6  per  cent  butterfat  remains  in  the  skim 
milk.  What  is  the  value  of  skim  milk?  W.  D.  Hoard,  editor  of 
Hoard's  Dairyman,  says : .  "  It  is  well  established  that  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  skim  milk  will  make  5  pounds  of  growth  when  fed 
to  pigs  weighing  from  75  to  150  pounds.  Multiply  this  growth 
by  the  price  of  pork  and  you  have  the  minimum  value  of  the 


n6  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

skim  milk.  Feed  it  in  conjunction  with  corn  and  you  add  20 
per  cent  to  its  value  or  cash  return,  all  as  a  result  of  the  com- 
bination." 1 

Cream  is  the  part  of  whole  milk  which  contains  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  butterfat  than  the  whole  milk.  According  to  Federal 
law,  cream  must  contain  not  less  than  18  per  cent  of  butterfat. 
Butterfat  rises  to  the  top  because  it  is  lighter  than  whole  milk. 
The  specific  gravity  of  whole  milk  is  1.029  to  I-°33;  water, 
i.oo;  and  butterfat,  about  0.93. 

The  amount  of  cream  lost  depends  upon  the  system  used  in 
skimming.  In  the  shallow  pan  system,  about  20  per  cent  of 
the  cream  is  lost.  The  skimmed  milk  retains  about  0.5  of  one 
per  cent  of  the  fat  in  the  whole  milk.  In  the  deep-setting  sys- 
tem where  deep  cans  are  used,  only  about  0.2  to  0.3  of  one  per 
cent  of  the  fat  is  lost.  By  the  use  of  centrifugal  separators, 
almost  all  of  the  butterfat  is  taken  out  of  the  milk.  However, 
when  the  skim  milk  is  tested  for  butterfat,  from  0.02  to  0.5  per 
cent  of  butterfat  is  usually  found ;  sometimes  more.  Butter 
has  about  the  following  composition : 

Butterfat 80  to  88  per  cent 

Salt i  to    4  per  cent 

Water 10  to  16  per  cent 

Federal  law  provides  that  the  maximum  quantity  of  moisture 
in  butter  cannot  exceed  16  per  cent.  Ordinarily  butter  has  about 
82!  per  cent  butterfat,  14^  per  cent  moisture,  and  about  2  to  3 
per  cent  salt.  By  an  act  of  Congress,  May  9,  1902,  butter  may 
contain  added  coloring  matter.  The  best  churning  temperature 
ranges  from  50°  to  60°  Fahr.  The  extreme  temperatures  for 
churning  are  from  46°  to  80°  Fahr. 

A  hundred  pounds  of  butterfat  will  yield  about  no  to  120 

1  Wisconsin  Buttermakers'  Association  Report  of  1912. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


117 


pounds  of  butter,  because  of  the  addition  of  salt  and  water. 
The  number  of  pounds  of  butter  yielded  above  the  number  of 
pounds  of  butterfat  is  known  as  the  overrun.  It  is  upon  the 
overrun  that  the  creamery  man  depends  mainly  for  his  profits. 

The  composition  of  cheese  varies  a  great  deal,  but  the  average 
for  full  milk  is  about  as  follows  :  water,  34  per  cent ;  fat,  35  per 
cent ;  casein,  28  per  cent ;  and  salt,  3  per  cent.  Cheese  is  an 
exceedingly  nutritious  food.  Butter  excels  cheese  in  flavor,  but 
cheese  is  a  better  balanced,  food. 

The  product  remaining  after  the  fat  and  the  casein  have 
been  taken  out  of  milk  is  whey.  It,  also,  has  some  food  value 
for  animals. 

Feeding  for  milk  production.  —  One  of  the  great  problems  for 
the  dairyman  to  solve  is  the  question  of  converting  vegetable 
feeds  into  milk.  To  do  this  best,  he  must  know  the  composition 
of  the  dairy  cow's  body,  the  milk  she  is  to  produce,  and  the 
digestible  composition  of  feeding  stuffs.  The  price  of  feeds  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  economical  aspect  of  milk  production. 
These  points  can  be  discussed  only  in  a  brief  way. 

Composition  of  the  dairy  cow's  body,  and  of  the  milk  pro- 
duced. —  The  author  was  unable  to  find  any  statement  as  to  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  dairy  cow's  body.  The  composition 
of  a  half-fat  steer  will  provide,  however,  a  fair  estimate  of  the 
approximate  composition  of  the  dairy  cow's  body. 


COMPOSITION  or  HALF-FAT  STEER  AND  MILK 


WATER 

FAT 

CARBOHY- 
DRATES 

PROTEIN 

N.  R. 

Fat  steer     .     . 

54-0 

22.6 

0.0 

I7.8 

i  :  1.2 

Milk       .     .     . 

87.4 

3-7 

8.7 

3-2 

i:5-3 

Ii8  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

In  the  production  of  milk,  the  body  of  the  dairy  cow  must  be 
first  supported ;  then,  in  addition,  food  must  be  provided  to 
produce  the  milk  given.  The  food,  if  it  is  to  produce  the  best 
results,  must  contain  in  proper  proportions  the  same  constituents 
that  are  found  in  the  dairy  cow's  body  and  in  her  milk.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  an  abundance  of  water,  some  carbohydrates,  and 
protein  must  be  fed  in  order  to  get  the  best  results  from  a  dairy 
cow. 

A  gallon  of  milk  weighs  8.54  pounds.  It  contains  the  follow- 
ing nutrients,  which  make  it  such  a  fine  well-balanced  food : 
water,  7.5  Ib. ;  butterfat,  i  Ib. ;  sugar,  f  Ib. ;  casein,  J  Ib. ;  albumen, 
i  oz. ;  and  ash  ingredients  in  the  following  amounts  :  lime,  \  oz. ; 
phosphorus,  i  oz. ;  potassium,  J  oz. ;  sodium,  i  oz. ;  iron,  ^ 
oz. ;  chlorine,  £  oz. ;  sulphur,  a  trace ;  and  vitamines.  Milk 
contains  everything  the  body  needs. 

In  feeding  dairy  cows,  or  the  human  body,  such  ingredients 
must  be  provided  in  the  feed  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  product 
produced.  Thus  everything  which  appears  in  milk  must  first 
be  found  in  the  feed.  If  it  is  not  found  in  the  feed,  it  is  certain 
never  to  appear  in  the  product.  In  fact  production  is  at  once 
reduced  when  certain  ingredients  found  in  milk  are  not  fed. 

Spring  conditions  make  most  milk.  Why?  —  Every  farmer 
welcomes  spring.  The  temperature,  the  abundance  of  succulent 
grass,  the  moderate  exercise,  the  comfortable  surroundings,  and 
the  balanced  ration,  and  the  drinking  of  a  lot  of  clean,  pure 
water,  —  all  are  conducive  to  the  highest  efficiency  in  milk  pro- 
duction. There  is  nothing  superior  to  blue  grass,  mixed  with 
white  clover,  for  milk  production,  because  the  cattle  eat  an 
abundance  of  this  feed;  it  is  palatable  and  contains  the  food 
elements  which  make  it  a  well-balanced  ration.  Compare  the 
composition  of  blue  grass  and  white  clover  with  the  dairy  cow's 
body  and  her  milk. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 
COMPOSITION  OF  BLUE  GRASS  AND  WHITE  CLOVER 


119 


WATER 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

PROTEIN 

N.  R. 

Blue  grass     .     . 

68.4 

0.6 

14.8 

2-3 

1:7.0 

White  clover 

78.2 

0-5 

9.6 

3-1 

i:3.5 

It  is  quite  probable  that  a  small  amount  of  concentrates  fed 
along  with  the  blue  grass  and  white  clover  would  increase  the 
milk  flow,  but  not  the  economical  production  of  milk,  except  in 
case  of  short  pastures.  In  addition  to  the  pasture  grass,  an 
abundance  of  pure,  clean,  moderately  warm  water  should  be 
provided.  These  summer  conditions  are  conducive  to  the  high- 
est milk  production. 

Winter  feeding  for  milk  production.  —  To  produce  the  best 
milk  in  winter,  summer  conditions  should  be  maintained  as 
nearly  as  possible.  The  cows  should  be  given  an  abundance  of 
green,  or  nearly  green,  feed,  a  well-balanced  ration,  an  abundance 
of  water,  and  comfortable  surroundings. 

Well-kept  silage,  sugar  beets,  and  mangel-wurzels  furnish  a 
feed  that  corresponds  as  nearly  as  possible  to  green  feed.  Silage 
is  one  of  the  principal  feeds  used  by  dairymen.  Silage  gives  bulk 
to  the  feed,  is  palatable,  causes  the  cow  to  eat  and  drink  more, 
and  is  probably  the  cheapest  substitute  for  green  feed.  Silage, 
however,  is  not  a  balanced  feed,  because  it  contains  too  large  an 
amount  of  carbohydrates  and  too  small  an  amount  of  protein. 

COMPOSITION  OF  CORN  SILAGE  (FROM  WELL-MATURED  CORN) 


DRY 

MATTER 

WATER 

FAT 

CARBOHY- 
DRATES 

PROTEIN 

N.  R. 

Silage      .     . 

26.3 

73-7 

0.7 

15.0 

I.I 

i:  15-1 

120 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


The  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  silage  is  as  i :  15.1.  This  shows 
that  it  contains  too  much  carbohydrate  material  in  proportion 
to  the  protein  content.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  blue  grass  is  i :  7.0. 
An  equal  amount  of  white  clover  and  blue  grass  makes  an  excellent 
ration  for  a  dairy  cow.  Its  nutritive  ratio  is  right,  but  the  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  corn  silage,  i :  15.1,  is  too  wide. 

Bran,  red  clover,  alfalfa,  soybean  hay,  cowpea  hay,  or  cotton- 
seed meal  may  be  used  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  protein  in  the 
corn  silage. 

DIGESTIBLE  COMPOSITION  OF  CORN  SILAGE  AND  OTHER  FEEDS  RICHER 

IN  PROTEIN 


DRY 

MATTER 

WATER 

FAT 

CARBOHY- 
DRATES 

PROTEIN 

N.  R. 

Silage   .     .     . 

26.3 

73-7 

0.7 

15.0 

I.I 

i:  15.1 

Wheat  bran  . 

89.9 

IO.I 

3-0 

41.6 

12.5 

i  '3-9 

Alfalfa  .     .     . 

91.4 

8.6 

0.9 

39-o 

10.6 

i-'3-9 

Cowpea  hay  . 

00.3 

9-7 

I.O 

33-7 

13-1 

1:2.7 

Prime  cotton- 

seed meal  . 

92.2 

7.8 

7-9 

24-3 

334 

1:1.3 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  above  feeds  contain  a  large  amount  of 
protein  material.  It  is  this  which  helps  in  balancing  corn  silage 
as  a  ration. 

The  suggestions  of  a  few  practical  rations  will  be  in  order  here. 
For  a  cow  weighing  1000  pounds,  producing  25  pounds  of  milk, 
testing  4  per  cent  butterfat,  the  following  rations  may  be  used. 
If  the  farmer  has  not  all  the  feeds  suggested,  other  feeds  may  be 
supplied  that  will  furnish  the  same  food  constituents.  But  in  the 
interests  of  economy  the  farmer  should  always  utilize  feed  stuffs 
that  he  has  raised  rather  than  buy  in  the  market,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  should  seek  a  proper  combination  of  them. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 

DIGESTIBLE  COMPOSITION  OF  A  RATION1 


121 


PARTS  OF  100 
POUNDS  OF  EACH 

DRY 

MATTER 

FAT 

CARBOHY- 
DRATES 

PROTEIN 

N.  R. 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Corn  silage 

25  Ib.     .     . 

i  of  ioo  Ib. 

6.6 

.02 

3-75 

.27 

Clover  hay 

10  Ib.     .     . 

TJo-  of  ioo  Ib. 

8-7 

.18 

3-93 

.76 

Corn  4  Ib. 

2*5  Of  IOO  Ib. 

3-98 

.18 

2.68 

•30 

Bran  4  Ib. 

2^5  of  ioo  Ib. 

3-99 

.12 

1.68 

•50 

Totals     . 

23.27 

•50 

12.04 

1.83 

i:7.3 

Requirements 

30.00 

.65 

13.00 

2.80 

i:5.3 

From  the  above  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  ration  suggested 
is  too  low  in  all  of  its  constituents  and  that  dry  matter  and 
protein  are  especially  lacking.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration 
is  too  wide,  indicating  that  a  larger  amount  of  protein  should  be 
fed. 

A  few  other  good  dairy  rations  are  given : 

|  Corn  silage 30  Ib.  Corn  silage 30  Ib. 

Bran 10  Ib.  Alfalfa n  Ib. 

I  Cottonseed  meal  ...  2  Ib.  Cottonseed  meal  ...  2  Ib 

Corn  silage     .     .     .     .   ' .     .     .  30  Ib. 

Soybean  hay 10  Ib.  N.  R.  i :  5.7 

Bran 10  Ib. 

When  production  of  milk  is  considered,  regardless  of  cost,  the 
composition  of  the  ration  fed  should  be  right.  But  when  the 
production  is  considered  from  an  economical  viewpoint,  and  this 
is  the  practical  viewpoint,  the  cost  of  the  feeds  making  the  ration 
should  be  carefully  figured. 

The  following  method  of  figuring  the  price  (not  the  feeding 
value)  of  feeds  may  be  suggestive.  Current  prices  should  be 
used  in  figuring  the  cost  of  rations. 

1  Henry  and  Morrison;  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


122 


LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


PRICES  OF  A  FEW  FEEDS 


FEED 

ESTIMATED 
COST 

COST 

PER  1000 

COST 

PER  100 

COST  PER 

p.  R  TON 

POUNDS 

POUNDS 

POUND 

Corn  silage      .     .     . 

$  3-50 

$    1-75 

$0.175 

$0.00175 

Clover  hay      .     .     . 

I3-50 

6-75 

0.675 

0.00675 

Cottonseed  meal 

30.00 

15.00 

1.50 

0.015 

Bran       

22.00 

II.  OO 

1.  10 

O.OII 

Summary.  —  Dairying  is  one  of  our  most  important  farm 
operations.  It  is  adaptable  to  high-priced  land,  enriches  the 
soil,  and  brings  a  steady  income.  The  dairy  cow  is  the  most 
economical  producer  of  human  food.  The  Jerseys,  Guernseys, 
Holsteins,  and  Ayrshires  are  the  major  dairy  breeds.  Every 
cow  must  have  a  good  constitution,  a  good  temperament,  a  good 
circulation,  and  milk-producing  capacity  if  she  is  to  be  a  profit- 
able cow. 

A  balanced  ration  at  the  lowest  cost  is  essential  to  economic 
milk  production.  Conditions  similar  to  those  in  summer,  such 
as  an  abundance  of  palatable,  green,  well-balanced  feed,  an 
agreeable  temperature,  a  moderate  amount  of  exercise,  and 
much  water,  are  conducive  to  the  highest  milk  production. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

i.  Make  a  survey  of  the  dairy  cattle  of  the  school  district.  Fill  out 
a  table  somewhat  as  follows.  Leave  a  permanent  record  in  the  school. 
Assign  three  or  four  days  before  the  results  are  to  be  reported. 


NAME  OF 
OWNER 

BREED 

NUMBER  OF 
Cows 

DAILY  GAL- 
LONS MILK 

POUNDS  OF  MILK  (MUL- 
TIPLY GAL.  BY  8.54)  l 

A  gallon  of  milk  weighs  8.54  pounds. 


b 


sji: 


tC.00  Ov  O   M  N 


. 

i  £s,£ssss 

o 

D 

^  rS 

1  |  .    a     1 
! 

.3 

Q         CS<SWMW(MC4 


li 

Q     «« 


I 

ili 


123 


124 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


DAIRY  CATTLE  —  SCORE  CARD 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

SCORE  —  FEMALE 

t  « 

OH  in 

-.<» 

•o 

m 

| 

• 

s 

* 

3 

i 

"C 

2 
in 

1  II  1  1  1  II  1  1  c°-' 

1 
un 

U 

1 

3 
<J. 

I 

O 

U 

\ 

1 
in 

u 

e 

8 

A.    General  appearance  —  22  points 
Weight,    estimated.  .  .  lb.;     actual.  .  .  Ib. 
Form,  wedge  shape  from  front,  side,  and  top 
Quality,  hair  fine,  silky;    skin  mellow,  loose, 
medium,   thick,   yellow,   not  fleshy;    bone 

I 

9 

6 

4 
2 

2 

2 
2 

4 

I 

3 

2 

3 
3 

I 

3 
3 

i 
3 
3 

I 

12 
10 

6 

2 

4 





'Dairy  temperament,  angular,  not  fat,  totally 
inclined  to  transform  food  into  milk     .     . 
Disposition,  gentle,  docile         
B.   Head  and  neck  —  8  points 
Muzzle  broad  °  nostrils  large    

Eyes  of  good  size,  mild,  bright     
Face,  lean,  fine,  shapely       ....... 

Ears,  not  coarse  ;  size,  medium  ;  inside  yellow 
Neck,  fine,  rather  long,  well  set  on  shoulders 
and  head  ;   top  line  slightly  curved  ;    throat 
clean  •    dewlap  light          

C.   Fore  quarters  —  5  points 
Withers,  lean,  thin,  not  rough     
Shoulders,  light,  oblique      ..... 
Legs,  straight,  short;    shank,  fine;    feet,  well 
placed 

D.  Body  —  17  points 
Chest,  deep,  low,  full  ;  girth,  large,  .  .  .  inches 
Crops,  not  deeply  depressed      
Ribs,  long,  broad,  well  sprung,  wide  apart     . 
Back,   lean,   strong,   "spinal  processes"   well 
defined        
Stomach,  deep  ;    girth,  large,  .  .  .  inches  .     . 
Loin,  broad,  long,  level,  last  rib  to  hip  .  .  .  inches 
Flanks,  low,  deep  from  hip  down      .... 

E.  Hind  quarters  —  14  points' 
Hips,  wide  apart      
Rump,  broad,  level  ;   long,  .  .  .  inches  .     .     . 
Pin  bones  (or  thurls),  high,  wide  apart  .     .     . 
Thighs,  thin,  roomy,  long,  well  carried   .     .     . 
Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart;    shank,  fine 
Tail,  long,  fine,  reaching  hocks,  switch  good    . 

F.    Udder  —  34  points 
Front  udder,  carried  well  forward,  full,  thick, 
soft,  mellow  within;   quarters,  even  .     .     . 
Hind  udder,  full  in  form,  well  up  behind,  good 
width,  mellow,  even     
Milk  veins,  large,  long,  elastic,  tortuous  .     . 
Milk  wells    large         

Teats,   "2\  to  3  inches  long,  good  size,  well 
placed         

Total          ... 

ICO 

DAIRY   CATTLE 


125 


2.  Compare  two  dairy    cows    from    the    standpoints    of    constitution, 
capacity,  temperament,  circulation,  and  ability. 

3.  Judge  according  to  score  card  the  best  types  of  dairy  breeds  obtainable 
in  your  neighborhood.     This  exercise  will  require  several  hour  periods. 

4.  Write  in  a  brief  story  the  characteristics  of  the  Jersey  and  Hoi- 
stein  cattle.    This  may  be  an  exercise  in  language  work. 

5.  With    Babcock    Tester    test    several 
samples   of   whole   milk.     (An  eight   bottle 
closed  tester  is   best  for  school  use.    Open 
testers  are  inaccurate  and  dangerous.) 

Directions.  —  First  get  a  good  sample  of 
milk  by  pouring  milk  back  and  forth  from 
one  vessel  into  another  several  times. 

Fill  milk  pipette  up  to  mark,  17.6  c.c.  of 
milk.  Pour  the  milk  into  the  whole  milk 
test  bottle.  Then  add  17.5  c.c.  of  sulphuric 
acid  (sp.  gr.  1.82);  with  a  whirling  motion 
mix  milk  and  acid  thoroughly.  Whirl  in 
tester  for  five  minutes.  Then  fill  bottles 
about  up  to  the  base  of  the  neck  with 
warm  water.  (Temperature  about  150° 
Fahr.)  Whirl  for  three  minutes.  Then 
fill  bottles  well  up  on  the  graduations  with 
warm  water.  Whirl  for  one  minute.  Read 
butterfat  test. 

6.  Test  some  skim  milk  and  buttermilk 
in  the  same  manner. 

7.  Figure   the   value   of  the   milk  pro- 
duced by  Cylene  Jewel  (page  114)  at  20 

cents  per  gallon.    Also  the  value  of  the  butterfat  at  30  cents  per  pound. 

8.  Get  from  your  parents  or  from  a  neighbor  the  ration  fed  to  a  dairy 
cow,  and  figure  its  cost.     Have  pupils  put  these  on  the  board. 

9.  Keep  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  produced  and  test  of  a  milch 
cow  for  two  months.     Weigh  and  test  milk  produced  the  first  and  fifteenth 
day  of  each  two  months.     Keep  your  record. 

10.  Debate;    Resolved,  That  the  dairy  cow  is  more  important  to  the 
people  of  the  United  States  than  all  other  farm  animals  combined. 


FIG.  47. —  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock, 
the  inventor  of  the  Babcock  test, 
which  aids  the  dairyman  to  de- 
termine whether  a  cow  is  produc- 
ing butterfat  economically. 


CHAPTER  VII 


SWINE   PRODUCTION 

Wild  swine.  —  It  is  reported  upon  good  authority  that  there 
were  about  twenty  species  of  wild  hogs.  The  wild  boar  is  prob- 
ably the  immediate  ancestor  of 
our  domestic  swine.  He  was  tall, 
slender,  deficient  in  sides  and  rear 
quarters,  and  had  heavy  shoulders. 
The  wild  boar  had  at  least  three 
means  of  protection:  he  was  a 
fleet  runner ;  his  long  tusks  were 
good  fighting  implements ;  and 
his  skin  and  hair  were  heavy. 

Wild  hogs  liked  moist,  damp, 
warm  places  best.  They  sought 
places  near  streams  where  the 
underbrush  was  dense,  where 
herbs,  roots,  insects,  and  refresh- 
ing waters  abounded.  "  Root,  hog,  or  die,"  was  a  natural  act  of 
the  wild  hog.  By  rooting,  they  secured  the  foods  they  needed, 
—  roots,  herbs,  insects,  and  worms.  Domestic  hogs  likewise  root 
up  the  pasture  to  secure  the  food  they  crave  and  need.  Corn- 
fed  hogs  will  root  up  the  entire  pasture  in  the  spring  to  get 

Note  to  the  Teacher:    The  materials  needed  to  do  the  Laboratory  Ex- 
ercises and  Home  Projects  at  the  close  of  this  chapter  are : 
Hogs  of  different  breeds  to  score. 

126 


Courtesy  of  Orange  Judd  Co. 
FIG.  48. —  Wild  boar  —  ancestor  of  all 
modern  breeds  of  swine. 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


127 


worms  and  roots.  These  furnish  an  additional  amount  of 
protein  substance,  which  aids  in  building  up  bone,  muscle,  and 
tissue.  Swine  that  are  fed  a  well-balanced  ration  will  usually 
not  root  up  large  areas. 

Swine-producing  states.  —  While  hogs  are  produced  in  every 
state  of  the  United  States,  the  states  of  the  corn  belt  are  the 
ones  that  furnish  the  surplus  of  swine  products.  The  ten  leading 
swine  states,  in  numbers  and  percentage  of  swine  produced  for 
one  year,  are  as  follows : 1 

0% 5%  10%  15%         20% 


UNITED  STATES 

IOWA 

ILLINOIS 

INDIANA 

MISSOURI 

OHIO 

GEORGIA 

NEBRASK 

TEXAS 

KANSAS 

MISSISSIPPI 

REST  OF  U.  S. 


66,649,000 
9,510,000 
4,585,000 
4,209,000 
4,047,000 
3,921,000 
3,102,000 
3,063,000 
2,427,000 
1,810,000 
1,783,000 


GRAPH  3.  —  The  leading  states  in  swine  production. 


About  57  per  cent  of  all  the  hogs  produced  in  the  United  States 
are  raised  in  the  above  ten  states.  The  average  number  of  hogs 
per  farm  in  Iowa  is  35,  and  in  other  states  it  ranges  from  that 
down  to  less  than  one  per  farm.2 

1  Data  for  1921  taken  from  U.  S.  Yearbook  of  Agriculture. 
2 1910  census. 


128  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

The  United  States  produces  about  40  per  cent  of  the  hogs  in 
the  world,  therefore  the  price  of  hogs  prevailing  in  the  United 
States  almost  sets  the  world  price  level  on  hogs.  The  number 
of  hogs,  according  to  a  recent  report,  in  the  different  nations  is 
as  follows : 

WORLD  SWINE  DISTRIBUTION 

World 177,853,000  PER  CENT 

United  States 66,649,000  37.5 

Russia 19,565,000  n.o 

Brazil 17,329,000  9.7 

Germany 14,269,000  8.0 

Hungary 6,825,000  3.8 

Austria 6,432,000  3.6 

Spain 4,997,000  2.8 

France 4,081,000  2.3 

Canada 3,517,000  2.0 

England 3,113,000  1.8 

Phil.  Islands 2,735,000  1.5 

Denmark 1,000,000  0.6 

Sweden 717,000  0.4 

Total 85. 

Rest  of  World 15. 

Denmark  produces  hogs  very  scientifically  and  secures  the 
gains  on  hogs  mostly  on  forage  crops. 

Advantages  in  pork  production.  —  i.  The  first  advantage  of 
pork  production  is  the  rapidity  with  which  swine  multiply. 
Sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  usually  average  less  than  one  offspring 
per  year.  From  ten  to  fourteen  pigs  are  frequently  produced 
in  a  year  from  one  pair  of  hogs. 

2.  Hogs  require  less  feed  to  produce  a  hundred  pounds  of 
meat  than  do  other  farm  animals.  From  500  to  600  pounds  of 
corn,  or  its  equivalent,  will  produce  100  pounds  of  pork,  while 
in  the  case  of  a  steer  it  requires  from  1000  to  uoo  pounds  of  corn 


SWINE  PRODUCTION  129 

to  produce  100  pounds  of  beef,  and  from  800  to  900  pounds  of 
feed  to  produce  100  pounds  of  mutton.  However,  sheep  and 
cattle  consume  feeds  of  a  different  nature,  and  for  that  reason 
may  make  more  economic  gains. 

3.  Hogs  dress  out  a  higher  percentage  of  carcass,  as  shown  by 
the  following  comparison : 

ANIMAL  PER  CENT  DRESSED 

CARCASS 

Swine 70-77 

Steers ' 60-66 

Sheep 50-55 

4.  A  fourth  advantage  in  pork  production  arises  from  the  fact 
that  swine  consume  large  quantities  of  feeds  that  otherwise 
would  be  wasted.     In  the  cattle  feed  lots,  hogs  eat  the  corn 
that  the  steers  leave.     From  150  to  300  pounds  of  hogs  may 
profitably  follow  a  thousand-pound  steer  that  is  on  a  full-fed 
corn  ration.     On  the  dairy  farm,  skim  milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey 
are  excellent  feed  for  swine.     Insects  and  the  grass  and  roots 
along  streams  and  fences  are  eaten  by  swine. 

5.  A  fifth  advantage  in  pork  production  is  that  instead  of 
hauling  from  500  to  600  pounds  of  corn  to  market  only  100 
pounds  of  pork  need  be  hauled. 

6.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  may,  by  proper  farm  manage- 
ment, be  maintained  where  hogs  are  raised. 

Economic  pork  production.  —  Young  pigs  put  on  more  weight 
with  less  feed  than  do  old  large  hogs.  This  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  which  gives  average  results  at  American  Experiment 
Stations,  where  more  than  2200  hogs  were  fed  in  over  500  feed- 
ing trials.  In  order  to  balance  the  ration  in  these  trials,  skim 
milk  and  whey  were  provided  as  a  part  of  the  feed.  Six  pounds 
of  skim  milk  and  twelve  pounds  of  whey  were  counted  equivalent 
to  one  pound  of  concentrates. 


130 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


RELATION  OF  WEIGHT  OF  PIGS  TO  FEED  USED  AND  THE  AMOUNT  OF  GAINS 
MADE  BY  PIGS  OF  DIFFERENT  WEIGHTS 


WEIGHT  OF  PIGS 

ACTUAL 
AVERAGE 
WEIGHT 

NUMBER 

OF 

ANIMALS 
FED 

AVERAGE 
FEED  EATEN 
PER  DA\ 

FEED  EATEN 
DAILY  PER 
IOD  POUNDS 
LIVE  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
GAIN 
PER  DAY 

FEED  PER 
100  POUNDS 
GAIN 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

15-50      •      ... 

38 

174 

2.2 

6.0 

0.8 

293 

50-100   .      .      . 

78 

417 

3-4 

4-3 

0.8 

400 

100-150   .      .      . 

128 

495 

4.8 

3-8 

.1 

437 

I50-2OO    .      .      . 

174 

489 

5-9 

3-5 

.2 

482 

2OO-250    .      .      . 

226 

300 

6.6 

2.9 

•3 

498 

250-300   .      .      . 

271 

223 

7-4 

2.7 

•5 

5ii 

300-350   .      .      . 

320 

105 

7-5 

2.4 

.       -4 

535 

From  the  above  table,  174  pigs  that  weighed  on  an  average  of 
38  pounds  put  on  100  pounds  of  gain  with  293  pounds  of  feed ; 
and  105  hogs,  weighing  on  an  average  of  320  pounds,  put  on  100 
pounds  of  gain  with  535  pounds  of  feed.  Why  such  a  large 
difference?  Because  it  requires  more  feed  to  maintain  a  320- 
pound  hog  than  it  does  to  maintain  a  38-pound  pig.  Since  young 
hogs  make  greater  gains  with  less  feed  than  do  older  hogs,  the 
practice  has  become  quite  general  in  recent  times  to  market  hogs 
when  they  are  from  six  to  eight  months  old  and  weigh  from  175 
to  225  pounds. 

However,  this  is  a  matter  that  again  calls  for  the  exercise  of 
judgment  on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  for  local  or  temporary  con- 
ditions must  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  they  affect  both  the 
prices  of  hogs  and  of  feeds. 

A  second  factor  in  reducing  the  cost  of  pork  production  is  an 
"  All  Year  Hog  Pasture."  Such  a  plan  was  most  excellently 
suggested  by  Mr.  Sam  Jordan  when  County  Farm  Adviser  of 
Pettis  County,  Missouri, 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


ALL  YEAR  HOG  PASTURE 


LOT  I  —  THREE  ACRES 
Sow  to  rye  early  in  the  fall. 
Pasture  from  about  Dec.  i5th  to 
the  last  of  May.     Plow  under  and 
sow  to  soybeans.     Pasture  soybeans 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  ripen,  until 
all  are  eaten. 


LOT  III  —  Two  ACRES 
Sow  to  rape  about  May  ist. 
Pasture    from    last    of    June    to 
middle  of  August,    when   hogs   are 
put  back  on  Lot  II.     Pasture  again 
when  hogs  are  done  with  soybeans 
on  Lot  I,  until  rye  is  ready  on  Lot 
II. 


LOT  II  —  THREE  ACRES 
Sow  oats  and  rape  in  early  spring, 
to  be  pastured  when  hogs  are  re- 
moved from  the  rye  on  Lot  I  until 
last  of  June. 

Pasture  again  from  middle  of  Aug. 
until  soybeans  are  ready.  Remove 
hogs  to  soybean  field,  Lot  I,  and  plow 
and  sow  rye.  This  rye  may  be  pas- 
tured from  Dec.  15  to  following 
spring. 


LOT  IV  —  Two  ACRES 
Permanent  pastures  of  blue  grass 
and  white  clover  or  alfalfa. 

This  is  to  be  used  as  a  reserve 
for  such  times  as  other  lots  might 
not  be  ready  or  could  not  be  used. 


"  This  ten  acres,"  Mr.  Jordan  says,  "  should  carry  from  50 
to  75  grown  hogs,  depending  on  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the  season, 
and  the  supplementary  feed.  If  this  plan  is  followed  and  about 
a  half-grain  ration  fed,  pork  can  be  produced  for  about  one  half 
of  what  it  can  be  produced  when  nothing  but  grain  is  fed.  If 
we  can  sell  hogs  for  8  cents  per  pound  and  it  costs  8  cents  a  pound 
to  produce  them,  we  had  better  stay  out  of  the  hog  business."  1 

The  advantages  of  the  "  All  Year  Hog  Pasture  "  are : 
1  Sam  Jordan;  "  All  Year  Hog  Pasture." 


132  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

1.  It  reduces  the  cost  of  pork  production  about  half. 

2.  It  improves  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

3.  It  provides  a  well-balanced  ration  and  keeps  the  hogs  in 
the  best  of  health  condition. 

4.  Because  the  soil  has  been  cultivated  and  the  hogs  are 
shifted  from  pasture  to  pasture,  the  soil  does  not  easily  become 
contaminated. 

A  third  factor  in  economic  pork  production  is  properly  bal- 
ancing the  ration.     The  picture  (Fig.  49)  shows  that  corn  alone 

does  not  support  the  tissues  of 
swine,  because  it  does  not  pro- 
vide enough  protein.  When 
skim  milk  and  wheat  middlings 
were  added,  the  necessary 
amount  of  protein  was  fed,  the 
courtesy  of  Orange  judd  Co.  ration  was  balanced,  and  as  a 

the  pigs  did  better. 


middlings  with  corn;  the  smaller  two  were          In  the  COm  belt    it  is 
given  corn  only. 

ally  believed  that  pork  cannot 

be  produced  without  corn.  This  opinion  is  not  supported  by  the 
conditions  under  which  the  wild  hogs  lived  in  the  forests  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  when  they  ate  herbs,  roots,  worms, 
snakes,  insects,  and  grew  fairly  well.  However,  when  a  well- 
balanced  ration  is  provided,  pork  is  produced  more  cheaply. 

If  corn  or  wheat  products  are  fed,  some  linseed  oil  meal,  tank- 
age, skim  milk,  ground  alfalfa  hay,  soybeans,  or  cowpeas  will 
help  to  balance  the  ration.  A  few  simple  rations  follow  : 

1.  Corn    ...............      3  parts 

2.  Skim  milk     .............       5  parts 

1.  Corn    ...............     14  parts 

2.  Tankage  ..............       i  part 

3.  Shorts      ........     ......       2  parts 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


133 


1.  Corn 6  parts 

2.  Alfalfa      . i  part 

1.  C&rn 

2.  Pasture  grasses 

3.  Skim  milk 

A  fourth  factor  in  economic  pork 
production  is  improving  the  herd. 
The  razorback  is  a  thing  of  the  past, 
because  he  does  not  dress  out  a  high 
per  cent  of  pork ;  nor  does  he  fatten 
economically.  The  picture  (Fig.  51) 
illustrates  the  difference  between  a 
razorback  and  a  half -pure  breed. 

The  razorback  is  a  scrub,  and  will 
sell  slowly  for  scrub  prices ;  the  half 
breed  sells  more  readily,  and  for  better 
prices. 

Types  of  swine.  —  There  are  two 
types  of  swine  ;  namely,  the  lard  and 
the  bacon  types.  The  bacon  type  is 
comparatively  narrow  over  the  back, 
the  quarters  are  somewhat  smaller, 
but  the  sides  are  deep  and  long. 
From  the  bacon  type  we  have  break- 
fast bacon,  which,  in  many  places,  is 
the  highest  priced  cut.  The  finest 
bacon  is  intermingled  with  a  great 
deal  of  lean.  This  is  the  kind  of  meat  generally  exported,  be- 
cause it  satisfies  foreign  trade.  The  people  of  England  are 
especially  fond  of  breakfast  bacon. 

Hogs  of  the  lard  type  have  broad  backs,  full  quarters,  and 


Courtesy  of  Orange  Judd  Co. 

FIG.  50.  —  From  milk  to  corn. 
As  the  animal  grows,  the  ration 
widens.  The  cut  shows  a  valuable 
lesson  regarding  feeding  the  swine. 
The  same  lesson  holds  true  for  the 
feeding  of  other  live  stock. 


134 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


short  legs.  They  have  the  greatest  capacity  to  put  on  fat,  and 
represent,  therefore,  the  best  conformation  for  maximum  pork 
production.  The  disposition  of  the  lard  types  is  slow,  sluggish, 


Courtesy  of  Orange  Judd  Co. 
FIG.  51.  —  How  breeding  improves  the  stock,  —  a  half-pure  breed  and  a  razorback. 


and  lymphatic.  They  put  on  fat  readily  and  often  become  too 
fat,  especially  for  show  purposes.  Judges  at  State  Fairs,  and 
elsewhere,  should  discount  hogs  that  carry  a  surplus  of  fat. 
Hogs  should  be  judged  in  accordance  with  their  purpose.  Breed- 
ing stock  should  be  in  good  living  condition,  and  hogs  for  the 
market  should  be  reasonably  fat. 

Breeds  of  swine.  —  i.  Berkshire 
hogs  came  from  Berkshire  County, 
England,  and  are  now  widely  dis- 
tributed. In  England,  the  Berk- 
shires  are  not  quite  so  broad- 
backed,  but  in  the  corn  belt  they 
soon  become  typical  lard  hogs. 
Berkshires  have  short,  dished 
faces,  their  ears  are  short  and  stand  erect,  and  their  bodies  are 
long  and  deep,  but  not  quite  so  wide  as  those  of  some  other 
breeds.  Their  backs  are  slightly  arched.  The  color  of  the 


FIG.  52.  —  The  Berkshire.    Lard  type. 


SWINE  PRODUCTION  135 

Berkshires  is  black,  with  five  or  six  white  points.  Generally 
the  head,  feet,  and  tail  are  partially  white. 

The  Berkshires  are  excellent  feeders  and  fatteners,  are  of  fine 
quality,  prolific,  and  are  very  adaptable  to  a  wide  range  of  cli- 
matic conditions. 

2.  Poland  China  hogs  originated  in  the  Miami  Valley  of 
Ohio  from  1816  to  1840.  They  are  very  compact,  close  to  the 
ground,  and  typical  of  the  lard  type.  They  are  black,  with 
white  feet,  tail,  and  face.  White  elsewhere  on  the  body  does  not 
show  impurity  of  blood.  The  face  is  straight,  and  the  ears  break 
at  the  upper  third. 


FIG.  53.  —  The  Poland  China.     Lard  type. 

The  chief  adverse  criticism  on  the  breed  is  their  lack  of  pro- 
lificacy. However,  it  has  been  found  that  the  average  of  one 
thousand  eighty-six  Poland  China  litters  was  7.45  pigs  each.1 

The  strong  points  of  the  Poland  China  breed  are  their  early 
maturing,  and  their  feeding  and  fattening  qualities.  They  are 
widely  distributed  and  a  very  popular  breed  in  America. 

3.  Duroc  Jersey  hogs  originated  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
In  1872,  the  National  Swine  Breeders'  Convention  practically 

1  Plumb;  "  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals." 


i36 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


set  the  essential  characteristics  that  this  breed  was  to  possess. 
Hogs  of  this  breed  are  a  solid  red,  ranging  from  a  dark  cherry 


FIG.  54.  —  Poland  China  pigs. 

red  to  a  lighter  red.  They  are  in  body  conformation  essentially 
the  same  as  the  Poland  China  breed.  They  rank  well  with  the 
other  lard  hogs 
in  per  cent  of 
dressed  carcass. 
A  well-finished 
loo-pound  pig 
will  dress  out 
7  2  pounds  or 
seventy-two  per 
cent,  and  a  300- 
pound  hog  well  finished  will  dress  out  about  237  pounds  or 
seventy-nine  per  cent. 


FIG.  55.  —  The  Duroc  Jersey.     Lard  type. 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SWINE 

1.  Lard  Types: 

i.   Berkshire     2.   Poland  China    3.   Duroc  Jersey     4.    Chester  White 

2.  Bacon  Types: 

i.   Yorkshire  2.   Tamworth  3.    Hampshire 

Feeding  a  balanced  ration.  —  Feeding  hogs  a  balanced  ration 
aids  much  in  economic  pork  production.     Growing  pigs  should 


FIG.  56.  —  The  Tamworth.     Bacon  type. 

be  given  feed  which  develops  the  frame  and  spring  of  ribs.  Feeds 
rich  in  protein  such  as  skim  milk,  buttermilk,  clover,  and  alfalfa 
are  fine  feeds  for  producing  growth  in  pigs.  Bran  is  also  a  fair 
feed  for  growing  pigs.  A  small  amount  of  bone  meal,  —  one 
ounce,  equal  to  about  4  tablespoonfuls,  daily  to  every  10  or 
12  pigs  having  a  total  weight  of  200  to  300  pounds  is  unexcelled 
as  a  frame-producing  feed.  It  may  be  fed  in  the  slop  or  in  a  dry 
mash  placed  in  a  self-feeder.  Forage  crops  composed  of  blue 
grass,  white  clover,  rape,  vetch,  and  alfalfa  are  unexcelled  in 
giving  hogs  exercise  and  spring  of  ribs. 


138 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


In  fattening  pigs  a  balanced  ration  produces  the  greatest 
gains  at  the  lowest  cost.  Hogs  that  are  matured  will  fatten 
fairly  well  in  a  short  fattening  period  on  corn  alone.  Old  hogs 
in  short  fattening  periods  will  do  better  if  fed  a  balanced  ration 
than  if  fed  corn  alone.  In  an  experiment  by  the  author  4  pigs 
made  greater  gains  at  a  lower  cost  on  a  fairly  well  balanced  ration 
composed  of  corn,  shorts  and  tankage  than  did  5  hogs  fed  corn  and 
shorts,  —  an  unbalanced  ration.  The  5  hogs  increased  in  weight 
from  730  to  1300  pounds  in  80  days,  the  average  daily  gain  was 
1.26  pounds  at  a  cost  of  4.7  cents  per  pound,  and  it  required  5.94 
pounds  of  feed  to  make  one  pound  of  gain.  The  four  hogs  fed 
corn,  shorts  and  tankage  increased  in  weight  from  560  to  1296 
pounds  in  90  days,  the  average  daily  gain  was  2.04  pounds  at 
cost  of  4.3  cents  per  pound,  and  it  required  4.94  pounds  of  feed 
to  make  one  pound  of  gain.  In  this  experiment  corn  was  worth 
$1.35  per  hundred;  shorts  $1.60;  and  tankage  $3.25. 

At  the  Kansas  Station,  a  group  of  7  pigs  were  fed  in  a  dry  lot 
on  corn  alone.  Another  lot  of  similar  pigs  were  fed  corn  and 
alfalfa.  Both  lots  were  fed  182  days.  Here  are  the  results  of 
that  experiment : 

CORN  vs.  CORN  AND  ALFALFA  FOR  HOGS 


FEED 

GAIN  IN  182 
DAYS 

AVERAGE  DAILY 
GAIN 

AVERAGE  BREAKING 
STRENGTH  OF  THIGH  BONES 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Lot  I 

Corn  alone 
and  water 

75 

0.31 

570 

Lot  II 

Corn,  alfalfa, 
and  water 

185 

I.OO 

1370 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  pigs  fed  corn  alone  made  a  daily 
gain  of  0.31  pound ;  and  those  fed  corn  and  alfalfa  made  a  daily 


SWINE  PRODUCTION 


139 


gain  of  i  pound,  or  they  did 
three  times  as  well  as  did 
the  pigs  fed  corn  alone.  Be- 
sides this  the  pigs  in  lot  II 
had  a  much  larger  and 
stronger  skeleton  as  the 
last  column  in  the  above 
table  shows.  The  pigs  of 
lot  I  made  100  pounds  gain 
at  a  cost  of  $31.49,  while 
those  of  lot  II  made  100 
pounds  gain  at  a  cost  of 
$6.68.  When  a  balanced 
ration  is  fed,  less  feed  is 
needed  to  produce  100 
pounds  gain.  In  an  ex- 
periment with  1 80  pigs  in 
each  group  the  following 
results  were  secured  with 
feeding  corn  alone,  and  corn 
and  a  nitrogenous  supple- 
ment. The  supplementary  feeds  were  composed  of  tankage, 
shorts,  cowpeas,  and  soybean  hay. 

CORN  vs.  CORN  AND  NITROGENOUS  SUPPLEMENT 


Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment  Station. 

FIG.  57.  —  Corn  and  alfalfa  were  a  fairly  good 
ration.     Alfalfa  balances  the  rations  if  fed  with  corn. 


FEED 

INITIAL  WEIGHT 

DAILY  GAIN 

FEED  FOR  100 
POUNDS  GAIN 

Lot  I 

Corn  alone 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1  80  pigs 

4.8  Ib. 

US 

0.9 

602 

Corn  and  ni- 

Lot II 

trogenous 

1  80  pigs 

supplement 

4.3  Ib. 

117 

1-3 

.441 

140  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

The  pigs  of  lot  II,  fed  corn  and  a  nitrogenous  supplement, 
made  40  per  cent  greater  gains  and  required  27  per  cent  less 
feed  to  make  100  pounds  of  gain. 

Prevention  of  hog  diseases.  —  Hogs  that  are  healthy  have 
a  strong  resistance  to  disease.  They  may  be  kept  healthy  by 
providing  clean  quarters  and  clean  water,  and  by  feeding  a 
balanced  ration.  If  every  cell  and  tissue  of  the  body  is  well  fed, 
the  hog  keeps  strong  and  vigorous,  and  disease  finds  no  fertile 
field  or  weakened  organs  in  which  to  develop.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  hogs  are  not  fed  a  well-balanced  ration,  some  parts  of  the 
cells  are  not  properly  nourished.  These  cells  become  weakened, 
and  disease  germs  soon  overtake  the  weakened  parts.  Strong, 
healthy  hogs  are  seldom  sick. 

Hogs  should  be  kept  free  from  worms  and  lice,  because  they 
reduce  the  vitality  of  the  hogs.  When  herds  are  infested  with 
worms,  it  is  well  to  use  six  grams  of  santonin  and  four  grains  of 
calomel  per  one  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight.  This  may  be 
fed  in  slop  after  hogs  have  had  no  feed  for  about  twenty-four  to 
thirty-six  hours.  Lice  may  be  destroyed  and  kept  away  by 
dipping  hogs  every  six  or  eight  weeks  in  the  summer  season.  A 
concrete  vat  filled  with  crude  oil  furnishes  one  of  the  cheapest 
and  best  dips.  Spraying  hogs  with  a  good  disinfectant  will  also 
do  away  with  lice. 

Hogs  will  not  need  treatment  often  if  they  are  provided  clean, 
sanitary  quarters.  The  saying,  "  dirty  as  a  hog,"  has  no  appli- 
cation in  the  hog  kingdom.  The  hog  does  not  like  filthy  and 
unclean  quarters,  and  if  man  will  do  his  part  in  maintaining 
clean  quarters,  the  hog  will  be  healthy,  free  from  lice  and  worms. 
Under  healthful  conditions  the  maximum  growth  and  thrift 
in  hogs  may  be  secured. 

Hog  cholera.  —  Hog  cholera  causes  an  annual  loss  of  about 
$65,000,000  in  the  United  States.  This  disease  is  caused,  like 


SWINE  PRODUCTION  141 

many  other  diseases,  by  a  small  germ  which  remains  unidentified 
up  to  the  present  time.  These  germs  may  be  carried  by  man, 
mice,  dogs,  crows,  pigeons,  sparrows,  and  on  wagons.  Hogs 
that  get  sick  should  be  isolated  and  put  into  a  pen  that  is  covered 
with  netting,  so  neither  mice  nor  sparrows  can  get  in.  All  hogs 
that  die  of  cholera  should  be  burned,  and  the  hog  quarters  thor- 
oughly disinfected.  A  good  disinfectant  is  fresh  air-slaked  lime. 
It  should  be  used  freely  on  the  floors  of  hog  houses  and  over  the 
ground  of  pens  and  feed  lots.  After  two  or  three  days  the  lime 
may  be  scraped  together  and  hauled  out  into  the  fields.  Other 
disinfectants  may  be  occasionally  used  to  advantage. 

"  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure,"  applies 
more  forcibly  to  hog  cholera  than  to  almost  any  other  disease. 
However,  when  all  measures  of  prevention  have  failed,  then 
remedies  must  be  used.  Calling  in  a  veterinarian,  or  the  Farm 
Adviser,  when  the  disease  first  appears  is  most  economical. 
Vaccination,  if  needed,  should  be  administered  early. 

In  all  contagious  diseases,  whether  of  animals  or  of  man,  it  is 
common  courtesy  to  one's  neighbors  to  put  up  a  sign.  When- 
ever hog  cholera  exists,  the  sign  to  be  posted  is,  "  Hog  Cholera 
Here."  Putting  up  such  a  sign  is  a  neighborly  act. 

Summary.  —  Raising  and  selling  hogs  is  so  profitable  that 
they  are  frequently  called  mortgage  lifters.  Early  maturity 
of  swine  lessens  the  cost  of  producing  pork.  A  well-balanced 
ration  also  reduces  the  cost  of  production ;  the  use  of  forage  crops 
is  almost  indispensable  in  successful  swine  husbandry.  Provid- 
ing clean  quarters,  keeping  the  hogs  healthy  and  vigorous,  and 
feeding  carefully,  are  large  factors  in  preventing  disease.  The 
economic  production  of  swine  deserves  our  careful  study  and 
attention. 


142  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES   AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

i.  Have  the  pupils  take  a  survey  of  the  district,  finding  the  breeds 
and  numbers  of  hogs  and  their  value.  Fill  out  an  outline  similar  to  the 
following  one  and  keep  in  your  permanent  notebook. 

HOG  SURVEY  OF  THE  DISTRICT 


FARMER'S  NAME 

HOGS 

VALUE 

PIGS 

BREED 

TOTAL  VALUE 

1.  Snout. 

2.  Eye. 

3.  Face. 

4.  Ear. 
5-  Jowl. 

6.  Neck. 

7.  Shoulder. 

8.  Foreleg. 

9.  Hind  leg. 


FIG.  58.  —  Points  of  the  pig. 

10.  Breast. 

11.  Breast  line. 

12.  Back. 

13.  Loin. 

14.  Side. 

15.  Tail. 

16.  Fore  flank. 

17.  Hind  flank. 

18.  Hip. 


19.  Rump. 

20.  Belly. 

21.  Ham. 

22.  Stifle. 

23.  Hock. 


SWINE  PRODUCTION  143 

2.  If  five  and  one  half  pounds  of  corn  will  produce  one  pound  of  pork, 
how  many  pounds  of  pork  may  be  produced  from  40  acres  of  corn  yielding 
27.5  bushels  per  acre? 

3.  If  the  hogs  in  the  above  problem  sell  for  7^  cents  per  pound,  and 
corn  is  worth  i  cent  per  pound,  or  56  cents  per  bushel,  how  much  will  the 
farmer  make  from  tilling  such  40  acres  of  corn  ? 

4.  If  it  costs  4  cents  per  bushel  to  have  corn  gathered  or  husked,  how 
much  can  a  farmer  save  by  " hogging  down"  40  acres  of  corn  yielding  the 
average  produced  in  the  United  States,  namely,  27.5  bushels  per  acre? 

5.  Have  pupils  make  miniature  hog  houses  out  of  pasteboard,  and  have 
them  discuss  the  essentials  of  a  good  hog  house. 

6.  Score  hogs  according  to  the  following  score  card. 

LARD  HOGS  —  SCORE  CARD 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


1.  General  appearance  —  34  points 
Weight  according  to  age      .     .     . 
Form,  arched  back,  straight  un- 
derline, smooth,  compact,  me- 
dium length,  standing  squarely 
on  legs 

Quality,  hair  smooth  and  fine, 
bone  medium  size,  clean, 
strong,  and  refined  .... 

Condition,  indicating  health  and 
high  capacity  for  dressed  car- 
cass   

2.  Head  and  neck  —  8  points 
Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse 

Face,  short,  broad 

Eyes,  clear,  not  sunken,  free  from 

wrinkles 

Ears,  carried  according  to  breed, 

fine,  medium  size 

Jowl,  full,  firm,  free  from  wrinkles 


IJKEED 


10 


10 


10 


144  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

LARD  HOGS  —  SCORE  CARD  (Continued) 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Neck,  thick,  short,  smooth  to 
shoulder  .  .<;....  2 

3.  Fore  quarters  —  12  points 
Shoulders,  broad,  deep,  smooth, 

compact  at  top 

Breast,  wide,  deep,  breast  bone 
advanced  ........  2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  pas- 
terns strong 2 

4.  Body  —  32  points 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth,  fore 

flank  full 4 

Sides,  deep,  broad,  full,  thickly 

and  evenly  fleshed  ....  6 
Back,  broad,  strongly  arched,  well 

fleshed 10 

Loin,  wide,  strong,  and  well 

fleshed 10 

Flank,  straight,  full,  and  low  .  .  2 

5.  Hind  quarters  —  14  points 

Hips,  wide  apart,  smooth   ...  2 
Rump,  long,  level,  wide,  evenly 

fleshed 

Ham,  deep,  wide,  full,  well  fleshed  8 

Pasterns,  strong,  straight,  upright  2 

Total   .  100 


BREED 


7.  Pupils  may  be  given  an  " Essay- writing  Contest"  on  one  of  several 
topics  in  connection  with  the  study  of  swine.  Such  topics  as  these  may  be 
used:  "Origin  and  Improvement  of  the  Hog,"  "Feeding  Hogs,"  "Money 
in  Hogs,"  "Treatment  of  Diseases  of  Hogs,"  "How  to  Produce  Cheaper 
Meat,"  "Time  of  Year  to  Raise  Hogs  in  Order  to  Make  the  Most  Money 
out  of  Them," 


CHAPTER  VIII 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION 

IT  is  generally  believed  that  the  Argali  of  Asia,  and  the  Musi- 
mon  of  the  islands  of  Crete  and  Cyprus  are  the  real  parents  of 
our  domestic  sheep. 
The  Argali  is  found 
on  the  plains  and  the 
mountain  sides  of  Asia, 
and  the  Musimon  is 
still  found  on  the 
islands  of  Corsica  and 
Sardinia  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  Both 
of  these  wild  types 
have  been  crossed  with 
our  domestic  breeds 
and  the  progeny  easily 
becomes  domesticated. 

The  habits  and  in- 
stincts of  the  wild 
sheep  are  still  found  in 
our  domestic  breeds 
(i)  Wild  sheep  sought  the  highest  places,  partly  because  they 
were  dry  and  partly  to  escape  their  enemies.  Domestic  sheep 

Note  to  the  Teacher:   The  materials  needed  to  do  the  Laboratory  Ex- 
ercises and  Home  Projects  suggested  at  the  close  of  this  chapter  are : 
At  least  two  sheep  to  judge. 

145 


FIG.  59.  —  The  Musimon,  one  of  the  wild  ancestors  of 
our  domestic  sheep.    Had  little  wool,  and  some  mutton. 


146  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

will  also  seek  the  highest  places  to  fold  for  the  night.  (2)  Sheep 
do  not  like  to  go  into  stables  or  cross  streams,  but  they 
will  follow  a  leader.  Shepherds  make  use  of  this  instinct 
to  drive  sheep  across  a  stream  and  into  a  stable.  After  one 
has  gone,  the  rest  will  follow.  (3)  When  sheep  are  excited, 
they  stamp  the  earth  with  a  front  foot,  a  signal  to  the  herd  of  ap- 
proaching danger.  (4)  Sheep,  and  especially  lambs,  have  a  great 
play  instinct.  They  jump  stumps,  low  straw  stacks,  or  play 
around  open  ditches.  If  a  barrel  is  set  up,  and  two  boards  leaned 
against  the  barrel,  lambs  will  run  up  one  board  and  down  the 
other,  seemingly  in  great  amusement.  (5)  Sheep  eat  weeds  in  a 
very  strange  way.  One  weed  is  not  eaten  down  by  one  sheep,  but 
each  sheep  of  the  herd  takes  a  nibble  as  it  passes  until  the  weed 
is  eaten.  Sheep  can  graze  the  turf  closely  because  their  upper 
lip  is  split,  and  because  they  have  sharp  incisors.  Sheep  are 
called  plant  scavengers,  because  they  eat  about  nine  tenths 
of  all  the  weeds  and  shrubs  found  in  pastures ;  horses  and  cattle 
will  touch  less  than  half  of  them.  Sheep  also  graze  steep  hill- 
sides where  cattle  and  horses  cannot  go.  Weed-infested  pastures 
in  which  sheep  are  grazed  actually  not  only  carry  the  sheep  but 
also  an  added  number  of  cattle,  after  the  weeds  have  been  de- 
stroyed and  the  grass  has  been  given  a  chance  to  grow.  Cut- 
over  timber  lands  unless  the  growth  is  too  rank  can  be  almost 
as  effectually  cleaned  up  by  sheep  as  by  goats.  It  is  very  much 
more  economical  to  have  weeds  destroyed  by  sheep  than  by 
paid  labor.  Another  important  feature  of  sheep-raising  can 
only  be  touched  upon  here.  The  income  from  wool  and  that 
from  the  lambs  and  mutton  is  derived  at  different  periods  of 
the  year.  As  a  rule  prices  of  mutton  and  lamb  accord  with  wool 
prices,  but  it  seldom  happens  that  all  these  products  sell  at 
bottom  prices  at  the  same  time.  It  is  always  possible  in  such  a 
case  to  store  the  wool  clip  for  a  better  market. 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION 


147 


Importance  of  sheep.  —  According  to  the  1920  Census  Report, 
there  were  45,067,000  sheep  in  the  United  States,  worth  on  an 
average,  about  $10.80  per  head.  The  income  from  these  sheep 
is  about  one  third  as  much  as  the  income  from  poultry. 

Sheep  states.  —  Although  sheep  are  found  to  some  extent  in 
every  state  of  the  United  States,  they  are  mainly  raised  in  the 
rolling  sections  of  the  West.  The  following  twelve  states  are  the 
leaders,  producing  about  65  per  cent  of  the  entire  sheep  crop. 
Texas,  Wyoming,  and  California  produce  almost  20  per  cent 
of  all  the  sheep  produced  in  the  United  States. 


UNITED  STATES 
TEXAST 

WYOMING 

CALIFORNIA 

OHIO 

NEW  MEXICO 

IDAHO 

MONTANA 

OREGON 

UTAH 

MICHIGAN 

COLORADO 

MISSOURI 

REST  OF  U.S. 


45,067,000 
3,069,000 
3,040,000 
2,950,000 
2,773,000 
2,666,000 
2,623,000 
2,450,000 
2,270,000 
2,245,000 
2,135,000 
1,973,000 
1,338,000 


GRAPH  4.  —  The  leading  states  in  sheep  production. 


Sheep  in  the  world.  —  The  United  States  has  about  10  per 
cent  of  the  sheep  of  the  world.  The  world  price  levels  on  sheep 
and  wool,  therefore,  are  set  by  other  nations.  The  leading  sheep- 


148  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

producing   nations   for    1920,   according   to    statistics   of    that 
year,  were : 

Australia 78,000,000 

Argentina 45,300,000 

United  States 45,067,000 

European  Russia 40,749,000 

Asiatic  Russia 37,000,000 

New  Zealand 24,000,000 

Great  Britain 23,407,000 

British  India    .         19,235,000 

Spain.. 18,600,000 

Germany 14,269,000 

Uruguay 11,473,000 

Turkey 11,200,000 

France 8,999,000 

Canada 3,721,000 

Some  of  these  countries,  like  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  are 
producers  of  a  very  superior  quality  of  wool. 

Classification  of  sheep.  —  Sheep  are  classified  as  wool  sheep 
and  mutton  sheep.     However,  typical  mutton-producing  sheep 
will  produce  some  wool,  and  vice  versa.    Sheep  are  divided  into 
the  following  classes : 
Fine  Wool  Breeds : 

i.   American  Merino     2.   Delaine    3.   Rambouillet 


FIG.  60.  —  A  pair  of  American  Merinos.     Examples  of  the  fine  wool  type. 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION 


149 


Medium  Wool  Breeds : 
i.    Southdown 


4.   Oxford  Down       6.   Dorset  Horn 


2.  Hampshire  Down       5.    Suffolk  Down       7.    Cheviot 

3.  Shropshire  Down 


-  •?•*-  - 

Shropshire  ewe.  Shropshire  ram. 

FIG.  61.  —  Examples  of  medium  wool  type. 

Long  Wool  Breeds : 

i.   Lincoln         2.   Leicester        3.    Cotswold 


FIG.  62.  —  Lincoln  ram.     An  example  of  a  long  wool  type. 


150  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

SOME  FACTS  ABOUT  SHEEP  l 


NATIVE  HOME 

COLOR 

OF 

POINTS 

LENGTH 

OF 

WOOL 

DIAME- 
TER OF 
WOOL 

WEIGHT 

OF 

FLEECE 

WEIGHT  OF 
SHEEP 

PER 

CENT 
DRESSED 

CARCASS 

Inches 

Inches 

Pounds 

Pounds 

American 

Merinos    . 

America 

White 

2-2* 

TT9T 

12-25 

100-150 

50.7 

Delaine   .     . 

United  States 

White 

3-5 

TT^T 

10-20 

IOO-I5O 

50-7 

Rambouillet 

France 

White 

3-4 

1  1  9T 

IO-I5 

150-185 

50.7 

Southdown  . 

England 

Gray 

2~3 

¥^5" 

4-8 

123-175 

55-3 

Cotswold 

England 

White 

8-14 

WT 

10-14 

200-265 

54-2 

The  fleece  of  the  Merinos  is  short  and  very  fine,  but  is  very 
dense  on  the  body.  By  density  is  meant  the  number  of  fibers 
that  grow  on  a  square  inch.  The  wool  of  the  long  wool  types 
is  not  so  dense,  is  thicker  in  diameter,  and  much  longer.  The 
wool  from  the  fine  wool  breeds  is  made  into  the  finest  woolen 
fabrics;  the  wool  from  the  medium  wool  breeds  is  made  into 
heavier  woolen  clothes ;  and  the  wool  from  the  long  wool  breeds 
is  made  into  carpets,  rugs,  and  other  coarse  woolen  articles. 

Sheep,  in  the  North  Central  States,  are  raised  mainly  for  their 
meat.  The  fleece,  weighing  about  8  pounds,  being  worth  about 
25  to  30  cents  per  pound  (or  about  $2),  pays  for  the  keep  of  the 
sheep.  The  lamb  sold  for  meat  weighs  usually  from  75  to  100 
pounds,  bringing  about  7  or  8  cents  per  pound  (worth  $7.50). 
The  latter  is  the  main  purpose  of  sheep  production  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States. 

Shelter  for  sheep.  —  In  dry  regions  sheep  need  little  more 
than  open  sheds  for  protection,  but  in  damp,  cold  regions  they 
need  closed  sheds  and  barns,  for  when  the  fleece  becomes  thor- 
oughly soaked,  5  or  6  days  are  necessary  to  dry  it  out.  Under 

1  Harper ;  "  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools." 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION  151 

such  conditions  the  sheep  take  pneumonia,  colds,  and  other 
diseases,  and  need  additional  feed  and  care.  The  wool  from 
fleece  that  has  been  soaked  is  never  so  good.  Keeping  sheep 
dry,  therefore,  increases  the  profits  of  the  sheep-raiser. 

Lambs  more  economical  fatteners.  —  Professor  Shaw,  at 
the  Montana  Station,  in  order  to  determine  the  relation  of  age 
to  economical  fattening,  conducted  an  experiment  with  sheep 
of  four  ages,  and  about  fifty  sheep  in  each  group.  The  following 
table  gives  the  results  of  the  experiment : 

RELATION  OF  AGE  TO  FEED  FED  AND  GAINS  MADE1 


AVERAGE  RATION 

FEED  PER  100 
POUNDS 

Pounds 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT 
AT  BE 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 

AVERAGE 
TOTAL 

Gain  in  Pounds 

GAIN 

GAIN 

Barley 

Clover 
Hay 

GINNING 

Barley 

Clover 
Hay 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Lambs     .     .     . 

0.7 

2.1 

63 

0.27 

23-7 

253 

763 

Wethers 

One  year  old 

O.y 

3-8 

95 

0.27 

23-5 

256 

HI3 

Wethers 

Two  years  old 

0.7 

4.1 

116 

0.28 

24-3 

248 

1469 

Aged  ewes  .     . 

0.7 

2-3 

92 

0.18 

I5.6 

387 

1320 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  amount  of  grain  fed  was  prac- 
tically the  same  per  one  hundred  pounds  gain  in  all  cases,  except 
in  the  case  of  aged  ewes,  but  that  only  763  pounds  of  clover 
hay  was  required  for  the  lambs  to  make  100  pounds  gain,  as 
opposed  to  about  1400  pounds  of  hay  for  the  other  three  lots, 
or  a  difference  of  about  700  pounds  of  hay  saved  in  feeding  lambs. 
This  at  a  half  cent  per  pound  would  be  worth  $3.50,  which  is 


Montana  Bulletin  No.  35. 


152  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

a  very  large  saving  in  favor  of  the  lambs  per  hundredweight 
gain. 

Pure  bred  sires.  —  The  use  of  pure  bred  sires,  of  proper  con- 
formation, quality,  and  disposition,  often  reduces  the  cost  of 
mutton  production.  It  is  said  that  the  sire  is  half  of  the  herd. 
In  the  first  generation  he  is  half;  in  the  second r  three  fourths; 
in  the  third,  seven  eighths,  and  so  on,  until  the  entire  flock  be- 
comes a  very  high-grade  group.  The  choice  of  a  good  pure  bred 
sire  is  very  important. 

At  the  University  of  Missouri,1  a  group  of  Western  ewes  were 
mated  to  a  pure  bred  mutton  ram,  and  another  group  of  similar 
Western  ewes  were  mated  to  a  scrub  ram.  There  were  1 7  lambs 
in  each  lot. 

The  lot  of  good  lambs  averaged  60  pounds  when  3  months 
old,  and  sold  for  $7.35  per  hundredweight;  the  scrub  lambs 
averaged  56  pounds  when  4  months  old,  and  sold  for  $4.50  per 
hundredweight. 

Notice  the  width  of  neck,  body,  withers,  hips,  thickness  of 
quarters,  and  size  of  the  good  lamb  shown  in  Figure  63. 

Lambing  time.  —  Lambing  time,  according  to  the  author's 
teacher,  Professor  Kleinheintz,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
is  the  "  harvest  time  "  of  the  shepherd.  Then  the  shepherd 
must  remain  with  his  flock  day  and  night.  Ewes  should  be  given 
separate  pens,  and  weakly  lambs  should  be  helped  in  getting 
their  first  meal.  Lambs  should  be  kept  warm  until  their  bodies 
become  dry ;  sometimes  they  must  be  wrapped  in  a  dry,  stove- 
heated,  woolen  cloth.  The  true  shepherd  is  quiet,  gentle,  kindly, 
and  sympathetic.  These  qualities  are  essential  to  securing  the 
best  results  with  sheep. 

Docking  lambs.  —  All  lambs  should  be  docked  when  about 
ten  or  twelve  days  old,  in  cold  weather  if  possible.  The  tail  is 

1  Cir.  65.     "  Advantages  from  the  Use  of  Pure  Bred  Ram." 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION 


153 


cut  off  with  a  sharp  knife  at  the  third  or  fourth  joint  from  the 

body,  where  the  skin  on  the  under  side  of  the  tail  begins  to  be 

covered  with  wool. 

The  skin  should  be 

slipped    as    far    as 

possible  toward  the 

body  of   the    lamb 

before  cutting.  The 

wound    should    be 

disinfected  with  a  5 

per  cent  solution  of 

carbolic    acid,    and 

then   covered   with 

pine  tar. 

Dipping  sheep.— 
Sheep  may  be  profit- 
ably dipped  twice  a 
year,  once  just  after 
they  are  sheared 
and  again  in  the 
autumn.  The  coal- 
tar  preparations  are 
probably  the  best 
and  cheapest  dips. 
The  directions  for 
their  use  are  gen- 
erally printed  on  the 
cans.  Ordinarily 
one  part  of  dip  to  one  hundred  parts  of  water  is  used.  Dipping 
overcomes  sheep  scab  and  sheep  ticks.  According  to  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  713,  sheep  scab  is  caused  by  a  small  parasitic  mite. 
The  female  mite  deposits  12  to  15  eggs  which  hatch  in  3  or  4 


Courtesy  of  University  of  Missouri. 

FIG.  63.  —  This  good  6o-pound  lamb  sold  for  $7.35  per 
hundredweight  when  three  months  old. 


154  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

days,  mature  in  7  or  8,  and  begin  to  lay  eggs,  the  whole  life 
cycle  being  complete  in  12  days.  When  dipping  sheep,  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  dip  warm,  about  100°  to  105°  Fahr. 
After  the  sheep  have  all  been  dipped  they  should  be  kept  in  a 
warm,  dry  place  not  exposed  to  drafts. 

Feeding  sheep.  —  Corn,  mixed  with  legume  hay,  is  generally 
fed  in  the  United  States  as  far  west  as  Colorado ;  farther  west 
wheat  or  barley  is  used  instead  of  corn.  Lambs  weighing  from 
60  to  80  pounds  may  be  given  the  following  daily  ration : 

Shelled  corn 1.3  to  1.5  pounds 

Clover  or  alfalfa 1.4  to  2.0  pounds 

Corn  stover,  corn  silage,  corn,  and  oat  straw  may  furnish  the 
carbonaceous  part  of  the  feed.  Clover  hay,  alfalfa,  cowpeas, 
or  soybean  hay  furnish  the  nitrogenous  part  of  the  feed.  Sheep 
need  feed  for  both  flesh  and  wool.  Wool  is  made  up  of  a  great 
deal  of  nitrogen,  and  therefore  heavy  wool  producers  should 
be  fed  a  larger  proportion  of  feeds  rich  in  protein  than  are  those 
that  are  to  produce  mutton  only.  Some  interesting  experi- 
ments have  been  made  by  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station 
with  regard  to  feeding  of  grain  to  lambs.  These  results  have 
been  well  summarized  by  Professor  Craig  in  "  Sheep  Farming  in 
the  United  States,"  to  which  the  student  is  referred. 

Summary.  —  Sheep  are  largely  produced  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  regions.  The  production  of  mutton  constitutes  about 
two  thirds  of  the  sheep  industry.  However,  the  production  of 
wool  is  important  to  the  American  people.  Care  and  proper 
management  help  to  make  sheep  more  profitable.  Unless  sheep 
are  given  shelter,  proper  feed,  and  are  protected  from  their 
enemies,  the  best  results  will  not  be  secured.  Docking,  dipping, 
and  starting  the  lambs  properly  are  necessary  for  success  in  sheep 
production. 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION 


155 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES   AND   HOME    PROJECTS 

1.  Write  an  essay  on  "The  Grazing  Methods  of  Sheep." 

2.  Write  an  argument  of   one   hundred   fifty   to   two   hundred   words, 
telling  why  raising  of  sheep  should  be  encouraged  in  your  county. 

3.  Make  a  survey  of  the  number  and  kinds  of   sheep  in  your  school 
district. 

4.  Score  sheep  according  to  the  score  card,  see  page  1 56. 


FIG.  64.  —  Points  of  a  sheep. 


i.   Muzzle. 

ii.   Shoulder  vein. 

21.   Fore  flank. 

2.  Mouth. 
3.   Nostril. 

12.   Shoulder  top. 
13.   Shoulder. 

22.   Belly. 
23.  Hind  flank. 

4.   Lips. 

14.   Arm. 

24.   Rump. 

5.   Nose. 
6.   Face. 

15.   Brisket. 
16.   Fore  leg. 

25.   Leg  of  mutton. 
27.   Dock. 

7.   Forehead. 

17.   Back. 

28.  Twist. 

8.   Eye. 

18.  Loin. 

29.   Hind  leg. 

9.  Ear. 

19.   Hip. 

10.   Neck. 

20.   Ribs. 

156  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

SCORE  CARD  —  MUTTON  SHEEP 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


NAME  OF  BREED 


Age,  estimated  —  years,  actual  —  years        .... 

General  appearance  —  26  points 

Weight,  estimated  —  lb.,  actual  —  lb.,  score  ac- 
cording to  age 6 

Form,  straight  topline  and  underline,  deep,  broad, 
low,  medium  length,  symmetrical,  compact, 
standing  squarely  on  legs 

Quality,  bone  of  firm  texture,  fine  skin,  silky  hair, 
clearly  defined  features  and  joints,  mellow  touch, 
fleece  soft,  fine,  pure 6 

Condition,  thick,  even,  covering  of  firm  flesh,  espe- 
cially in  regions  of  valuable  cuts,  indicating  fin- 
ish, light  in  offal 6 

Head  and  neck  —  8  points 

Muzzle,  good  size,  lips  thin,  nostrils  large  and  well 

apart,  jaws  wide i 

Face,  short,  broad,  profile  straight i 

Eyes,  large,  full,  clear,  bright i 

Forehead,  broad i 

Ears,  well  carried,  fine,  medium  size i 

Neck,  thick,  short,  throat  clean 3 

Fore  quarters  —  10  points 

Shoulder  vein,  smooth,  full 2 

Shoulders,  smoothly  covered  with  firm  flesh,  com- 
pact    4 

Brisket,  broad,  full,  breast  wide 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart ;  forearm  full, 
shank  fine ;  feet  sound 2 

Body  —  25  points 

Chest,  deep,  broad,  girth  large,  fore  flank  full    .     .          4 
Back,   broad,   straight,   medium   length,    thickly, 

evenly,  and  firmly  fleshed 7 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION 
SCORE  CARD  —  MUTTON  SHEEP  (Continued) 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


NAME  OF  BREED 


Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung,  closely  set,  thickly,  evenly, 

and  firmly  fleshed 6 

Loin,  broad,  straight,  thickly,  evenly,  and  firmly 
fleshed 6 

Flanks,  full,  low 2 

Hind  quarters  —  20  points 

Hips,  smoothly  covered,  proportionate  width     .     .          3 
Rump,  long,  level,  width  well  carried  back,  thickly, 

evenly,  and  firmly  fleshed 5 

Thighs,  deep,  wide,  well  fleshed 4 

Twist,  deep,  broad,  well  filled 6 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  shank,  short  but 
sound 2 

Fleece  and  skin  —  1 1  points 

Quantity  of  wool,  long,  dense,  even,  well  distributed 

over  body 3 

Quality  of  wool,  fine,  soft,  pure,  even,  crimp  close 

and  uniform 3 

Condition  of  wool,  bright,  strong,  clean,  yolk  abun- 
dant    2 

Skin,  pink  color,  clear .          3 

Total  100 


CHAPTER  IX 


POULTRY 

Origin  and  history  of  poultry.  —  It  is  generally  believed 
that  our  domestic  hen  originated  from  the  wild  jungle  fowls 
which  still  live  in  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 

This  wild  fowl  was  a  game,  wary, 
shy  bird,  about  the  size  of  a 
pheasant,  weighing  from  a  pound 
to  three  and  one  half  pounds. 
The  female  jungle  fowl  usually 
laid  two  clutches  of  eggs  a  year, 
each  containing  from  2  to  15 
eggs.  These  eggs  were  small  and 
probably  weighed  from  4  to  8 
ounces  a  dozen. 

The  wild  fowl  was  a  scratching 
bird,  living  on  seeds,  insects,  and 
vegetation.  It  could  fly  some 
distance,  and,  after  the  young 

were  large  enough  to  fly,  roosted  on  limbs  of  shrubs  and  trees. 
It  was  a  game  fowl,  and  its  flesh  had  a  wild,  undomesticated 

Note  to  the  Teacher:  The  materials  needed  to  do  the  Laboratory  Ex- 
ercises and  Home  Projects  suggested  at  the  close  of  this  chapter  are : 

"  The  Standard  of  Perfection,"  pure-bred  fowls  of  the  following  breeds : 
Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island  Red,  Orpington,  and  others. 
One  sample  of  eggs  (twelve  eggs  make  a  sample) ;  scales  that  will  weigh 
to  ounces. 

158 


FIG.    65.  —  The  Aseel  fowl,  one  of  the 
original  ancestors  of  domestic  fowls. 


POULTRY  159 

taste,  and  did  not  possess  the  good  eating  qualities  of  the  meat 
breeds  of  our  fowls  to-day.  Some  people  prefer  the  wild  flavor 
and  think  that  Leghorn  chickens  have  a  flavor  like  that  of  un- 
domesticated  birds. 

Fowls  were  domesticated  centuries  ago  by  the  Chinese.  From 
China  they  were  distributed  through  the  rest  of  Asia,  Europe, 
and  America. 

Up  to  1850  little  was  done  to  develop  and  improve  poultry 
breeds.  Very  primitive  methods  were  used  in  the  poultry  in- 
dustry. Methods  of  housing,  feeding,  breeding,  and  selection 
were  neglected.  Scarcely  any  one  attempted  to  develop  his 
poultry.  Two  practices  greatly  hindered  its  development: 
(i)  The  best  fowls  were  slaughtered  for  table  use,  and  (2)  it  was 
generally  believed  that  a  mixed  flock  produced  the  best  results ; 
consequently,  no  definite  varieties  were  developed.  The  idea 
that  a  mixed  flock  of  fowls  are  more  productive  is  still  held  by 
many,  but  is  not  in  keeping  with  the  principle,  "  that  for  definite 
purposes,  definite  varieties  are  developed." 

Since  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  definite 
breeds  have  been  developed  for  specific  purposes.  Factors  which 
have  been  influential  in  aiding  the  development  of  definite  breeds 
were : 

1 .  The  interest  of  poultrymen  in  better  poultry 

2.  Exhibitions 

3.  Poultry  books  and  newspapers 

4..   Incubators  (improved  from  1890  on) 

5.  Instruction 

6.  The  publication  of  "  The  Standard  of  Perfection"  1  (first 
copy  published  1874) 

1  "  The  Standard  of  Perfection"  is  published  by  the  American  Poultry  Associa- 
tion, Mansfield,  Ohio.  (Cost  about  $2.)  This  book  should  be  placed  in  every 
school  in  the  land. 


i6o 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


Importance  of  poultry.  —  The  value  of  fowls  raised  and  chicken 
eggs  produced  in  1919  was  $1,047,989,919,  while  the  products 
of  all  kinds  of  poultry  in  1909  were  valued  at  $509,195,232, 
representing  an  increase  of  $538,794,687  or  105.8  per  cent.  The 
value  of  chickens  raised  and  chicken  eggs  produced  in  1919  con- 
stituted 39.3  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  live  stock  products ; 
in  1909  the  value  of  poultry  was  43.2  per  cent  of  the  value  of 
such  products. 

The  seven  states  reporting  the  largest  production  of  fowls  and 
eggs  in  1919  according  to  the  Census  Report  of  1920  were  the 
following : 


NUMBER  OF  FOWLS 

DOZENS  OF  EGGS 

VALUE  OF  POULTRY 
PRODUCTS 

Iowa 

27,750,000 

120,697,000 

$70,212,000 

Missouri 

25,000,000 

117,203,000 

66,271,000 

Illinois 

25,000,000 

105,757,000 

67,690,000 

Ohio 

20,232,000 

102,377,000 

64,109,000 

Indiana 

16,700,000 

83,101,000 

52,765,000 

Kansas 

16,500,000 

76,136,000 

44,199,000 

Nebraska 

11,615,000 

49,132,000 

29,500,000 

The  poultry  states  and  the  corn  belt  states  are  the  same. 

The  corn  belt  is  composed  of  the  states  of  Iowa,  Illinois,  Mis- 
souri, Indiana,  Nebraska,  Ohio,  and  Kansas.  The  above  seven 
states  produce  over  40  per  cent  of  all  the  fowls  and  eggs  produced 
in  the  United  States.  The  rest  of  the  states  produce  not  quite 
60  per  cent  of  the  poultry  products  of  the  United  States. 

Classes,  breeds,  and  varieties  of  poultry.  —  There  are  twelve 
classes  of  poultry.  The  term  "  class  "  usually  refers  to  the 
country  in  which  the  fowls  originated.  The  twelve  classes  are : 
American,  Asiatic,  Mediterranean,  English,  Polish,  Hamburg, 


POULTRY  161 

French,  Continentals,   Games  and  Game  Bantams,  Orientals, 
Oriental  Bantams,  and  Miscellaneous. 

In  each  class  there  are  usually  several  breeds  ;  for  illustration, 
in  the  American  Class  there  are  the  following  breeds  :  (i)  Plym- 
outh Rocks,  (2)  Wyandottes,  (3)  Javas,  (4)  Dominiques, 
(5)  Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  (6)  Buckeyes.  Every  breed  has  a 
different  shape.  Poultrymen  frequently  say,  "  shape  makes 
the  breed,  and  color  the  variety."  To  illustrate,  all  Rhode 


Courtesy  of  University  of  Missouri. 

FIG.  66.  —  Rhode  Island  Red  male  and  female.     The  Rhode  Island    Reds  are  charac- 
terized by  a  straight  back  and  rectangular  appearance. 

Island  Reds  are  bricklike  in  shape;  and  all  Wyandottes  are 
ball-shaped.  Rhode  Island  Reds  have  a  long  back  and  body; 
Wyandottes  have  a  short  back  and  body.  Study  the  illustrations 
of  hens  and  cocks  of  each.  Hens  and  cocks  of  each  breed  have 
standard  weights.  The  size,  shape,  and  weights  of  fowls  are 
closely  related.  Some  people  overemphasize  color  of  plumage, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that,  while  color  of  plumage  is  worth 


FIG.  67 .  —  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  Note  the  shape  of  these  fowls.  Plymouth 
Rocks  are  of  six  varieties,  —  Barred,  White,  Buff,  Silver  Penciled,  Partridge,  and 
Columbian.  All  varieties  have  the  same  weight,  —  cocks  Q£  lb.,  hens  7^  Ib. 


Courtesy  of  University  of  Missouri. 

FIG.  68.  —  Wyandotte  male  and  female.  Note  their  shape.  They  are  ball- 
shaped  and  have  a  Rose  comb.  All  varieties  of  this  breed  have  the  same  shape 
and  weight,  —  cocks  8^  lb.,  hens  6^  lb. 

162 


POULTRY 


163 


while,  it  is  only  a  matter  of  secondary  importance.  If  a  fowl 
is  to  be  most  productive  in  egg  or  meat  production,  it  must 
have  the  shape  which  is  consistent  with  the  purpose  in  mind. 
A  very  short  back  and  body  are  not  conducive  to  the  highest 
egg  or  meat  production.  A  fowl  must  have  capacity  of  back 
and  body  in  order  to  be  a  good  egg  or  meat  producer.  Egg 


Courtesy  of  University  of  Missouri. 

FIG.  69.  —  Orpington  male  and  female.     While  the  Orpington  has  a  back  similar  to  the 
Plymouth  Rock,  its  general  appearance  approaches  that  of  the  Wyandotte. 


production  and  meat  production  have  been  the  bases  of  devel- 
opment of  most  of  our  breeds  of  poultry. 

As  was  stated  above,  "  color  makes  variety."  The  Plymouth 
Rock  Breed  comprises  six  varieties,  Barred,  White,  Buff,  Silver 
Penciled,  Partridge,  and  Columbian.  The  varieties  have  dif- 
ferent colored  plumage.  In  practically  all  other  respects  they 
are  similar.  Their  shapes  are  identical.  "  The  Standard  of 


164  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

Perfection  "  gives  detailed  descriptions  of  the  shapes  and  colors 
of  all  varieties  of  fowls. 

Purposes    of    poultry.  —  Egg    and    meat    production.     Three 
types  of  fowls  have  been  developed:    (i)  the  egg  type,  (2)  the 


FIG.  70.  —  Single-comb  White  Leghorns.     Note  white  ear  lobe,  and  the  snug  way  they 

hold  their  feathers. 

meat  type,  and  (3)  the  general  purpose  type.  The  Mediterra- 
nean Class,  of  which  the  Leghorns  are  a  breed,  conform  most 
closely  to  the  egg  type.  The  Asiatic  Class  is  generally  considered 
a  meat-producing  type.  The  American  Class  and  the  Orping- 
tons of  the  English  Class  are  of  the  general  purpose  type. 

Since  swine  and  beef  cattle  furnish,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
meat  supply  for  the  American  people,  chickens  are  not  raised 
extensively  for  their  meat ;  although  large  quantities  of  poultry 
are  sold  annually  for  meat.  The  egg  production  in  the  United 
States,  on  the  average,  is  nearly  60  eggs  per  hen  per  year.  It  is 
believed  the  average  production  could  be  raised  to  120  eggs  per 
hen.  Since  twelve  eggs,  if  of  fair  size,  weigh  from  24  to  26  ounces, 
and  the  weight  of  the  average  hen  is  about  five  pounds,  it  will 
be  seen  that  a  hen  would  produce  about  three  times  her  own 
weight  in  eggs  a  year. 


POULTRY 


165 


60  eggs.     What  the  average  farm  hen 
produces. 

FIG.  71. 


120  eggs.     What  she  should  produce. 


EGG  PRODUCTION 


VARIETY  OR  NAME 

NUMBER 
OF  EGGS 

WEIGHT  OF 
EGGS  IN 
OUNCES 

WEIGHT  OF 
HEN 

WEIGHT  OF 
FEEDS 
EATEN  PER 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Plymouth  Rock     

16=; 

•2  c;i  AC 

6  2<? 

91  8 

Wyandotte 

T  7tr 

o  e  f  2^ 

c  7? 

7  A.  <. 

Rhode  Island  Red      .... 

l67 

374.08 

5.98 

91-5 

Leghorn        

165 

348.15 

3.60 

71-3 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  above  table  that  the  Leghorns 
produced  a  greater  weight  of  eggs  in  proportion  to  the  food  con- 
sumed than  any  other  breed.  However,  the  conclusion  should 
not  be  made  from  the  above  table  that  the  Leghorns  are  the  best 

1  Taken  from  Bulletin  No.  10,  Missouri  State  Poultry  Experiment  Station. 


1 66 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


breed.  About  one  third  of  the  money  derived  from  the  sales 
of  the  poultry  products  comes  from  the  sale  of  poultry  for  meat ; 
and  about  two  thirds  of  the  income  comes  from  the  sale  of  eggs. 
Characteristics  of  a  good  fowl.  —  A  good  fowl  should  con- 
form very  closely  to  the  standard  weight  and  shape  of  the  breed 
to  which  it  belongs,  and  have  the  color  of  its  variety.  This 


Courtesy  of  Mountain  Grove  Poultry  Rxp.  Station. 

FIG.  72.  —  Two  chicks  of  the  same  age,  raised  in  the  same  brooder  and  given  the  same 
feed.     One  is  bred  from  vigorous,  healthy  stock  and  the  other  from  stock  lacking  in  vitality. 

shows  good  breeding  or  improvement  and  indicates  that  its 
ancestors  were  pure  bred  fowls  for  at  least  six  generations.  A 
fowl  should  also  show  a  good  constitution.  A  strong  beak,  a 
broad  head,  a  well-formed  body,  and  strong  legs  indicate  a  good 
constitution.  A  fowl  with  a  thin,  peaked,  snaky  head  should  be 


POULTRY  167 

killed  for  meat.  The  posture  and  carriage  of  a  fowl  are  worthy 
of  consideration.  Erectness,  pride,  alertness,  and  activity  are 
characteristics  of  a  good  fowl.  An  active  fowl  is  better.  "  Late 
to  roost  and  early  to  rise,  makes  a  fowl  healthy,  wealthy,  and 
productive."  A  fowl  that  is  lazy,  droopy,  and  does  not  hold  its 
feathers  and  body  up  snugly  is  not  good.  A  fowl  that  works 
from  early  morning  to  late  evening  is  the  egg  producer.  Fowls 
that  remain  on  the  roost  late  in  the  morning,  go  to  bed  early  at 
night,  and  sit  on  the  roost  a  part  of  the  day  are  drones  and  un- 
worthy of  their  keep.  The  hens  that  go  farthest  from  the  house 
are  usually  the  best  layers. 
Other  points  which  indicate  good  qualities  in  fowls  are : 

1 .  Early  hatched  and  early  maturing  pullets 

2.  Early  laying  pullets 

3.  Winter  laying  hens 

4.  Fowls  that  do  not  go  broody 

5.  Late  molting  fowls 

6.  Fowls  with  short,  worn-down  toenails 

Housing  of  poultry.  —  The  essentials  of  a  poultry  house.  The 
essentials  of  housing  poultry  are : 

1.  The  house  must  furnish  sufficient  room. 

2.  It  should  be  dry. 

3.  It  should  be  well  ventilated,  but  free  from  drafts. 

4.  Every  part  of  the  house  should  receive  sunshine  during 
the  day. 

5.  It  should  be  sanitary  and  easily  cleaned. 

6.  It  should  be  convenient. 

7.  It  should  be  economic  in  cost. 

8.  It  should  be  enemy  proof. 

i.  Authorities  agree  that  each  fowl  should  have  from  3  to  5 
square  feet  of  floor  space.  A  house  that  has  400  square  feet  of 
floor  space  will  house  satisfactorily  about  100  fowls.  However 


1 68 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


the  floor  space  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  kinds  of  fowls ;  the 
heavy  Asiatics  will  require  more  room  than  the  small  Leghorns. 
A  poultry  house  that  is  to  serve  as  a  roosting  place  alone  need 


Courtesy  of  Missouri  Poultry  Experiment  Station. 

FIG.  73.  —  A  cross  section  of  a  convenient  poultry  house.  M  is  a  roost  pole,  O  is  the 
droppings  platform,  Q  is  the  nest  underneath,  L  is  the  back  ventilator,  U  is  the  bin  for  the 
grain,  S  and  T  are  the  front  ventilators. 

not  be  as  large  per  fowl  as  one  that  is  to  serve  as  a  roosting,  living, 
and  laying  house. 

2.  The  poultry  house  should  be  built  in  a  dry  place  and  kept 
dry.     A  wet,  moist  house  will  be  a  cold  house. 

3.  The  house  should  be  free  from  drafts,  but  should  be  well 
ventilated.     Pure  air  is  essential  to  poultry,  but  drafts  cause 
sickness  and  reduce  the  strength  of  the  fowls.     Means  for  ven- 
tilation should  also  be  provided  when  the  house  is  built. 

4.  The  sunlight  should,  if  possible,  strike  every  part  of  the 
house  daily.     The  sun's  rays  keep  the  house  dry  and  comfortable, 
destroy  germs  and  lice,  and  give  tone  to  the  fowls.     The  kind  of 


POULTRY  169 

windows   and   methods   of    admitting    sunshine    are  discussed 
later. 

5.  A  sanitary  house,  free  from  germs,  odors,  and  lice,  is  essen- 
tial.    All  interior  fixtures  should  be  movable.     The  walls  should 
be  free    from   crevices   and   openings.     No   hiding  places  for 
vermin  should  be  allowed.     The  manure  should  be  removed 
frequently. 

6.  Convenient  arrangement  of  the  interior  of  a  poultry  house 
reduces  the  cost  of  production.     Roosts,  nests,  feeding  hoppers, 
drinking  pans,  bins  for  holding  feeds,  should  be  conveniently 
located  for  the  attendant. 

7.  Poultry  houses  should  be  economically  constructed.     A 
house  suitable  for  100  hens  should  not  cost  much  more  than 
$60  or  $75.     The  lumber  of  old  buildings  may  be  used  to  re- 
duce the  cost.     Square  houses  cost  less  than  long  houses.     A 
simple  house  costs  less  and  is  better. 

8.  Rats,  mice,  and  other  animals  should  be  kept  out  of  the 
poultry  house.     There  is  much  loss  due  to  rats  destroying  young 
chickens.     Minks  and  polecats  also  lay  a  heavy  tax  on  poultry 
production. 

Poultry  house   construction.  —  Foundation.     There  are   two 
kinds  of  foundations  for  the  sills  to  rest  upon : 

1.  Wooden  posts  of  hedge,  oak,  or  cedar  may  be  used  for  the 
foundation.     These  posts  are  set  2  or  3  feet  in  the  ground,  and 
3  or  4  feet  apart.     A  trench  should  be  dug  all  the  way  around 
these  posts,  and  a  fine  wire  netting,  extending  2  to  3  feet  in  the 
ground,  should  be  tacked  to  the  posts.     This  netting  will  keep 
out  vermin.     Brick  or  rock  pillars  may  be  used  instead  of  wooden 
posts. 

2.  Cement  foundations  are  put  into  the  soil  deep  enough  to 
prevent  heaving  by  frost,  and  should  extend  12  inches  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground.     Cement  foundations  give  greater 


170  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

protection  from  cold  and  destructive  animals.     They  are  more 
expensive  but  last  longer. 

Floors.  There  are  three  kinds  of  floors  for  poultry  houses. 
Each  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages,  according  to  con- 
ditions : 

1.  The  earth  floor  is  probably  the  best  in  places  where  the 
soil  is  sandy  and  dry,  but  should  not  be  used  in  places  where  the 
soil  is  wet.     An  earth  floor  is  hard  to  clean ;   a  part  of  it  is  taken 
away  at  every  cleaning,  so  that  it  soon  becomes  lower  than  the 
ground  outside  and  the  soil  water  drains  into  the  house. 

2.  Board  floors  harbor  insects,  rats,  and  mice,  are  cold,  do  not 
last  long,  and  therefore  are  not  to  be  recommended. 

3.  Cement  floors,  if  properly  made,  are  the  best.     In  making 
a  cement  floor  the  following  points  should  be  observed :    First, 
from  8  to  12  inches  of  coarse  gravel,  rocks,  or  cinders  should  be 
packed  down  to  break  the  capillary  movement  of  soil  water, 
and  to  keep  the  house  dry.     The  cement  floor  should  be  8  to 
12  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.     This  will  keep  the 
house  dry,  especially  if  the  soil  outside  is  properly  graded.     The 
cement   floor    is    durable    and    rat-proof    and    can  be   easily 
cleaned. 

Walls.  Walls  are  made  of  boards,  brick,  or  cement.  In  most 
cases  boards  put  on  vertically  are  most  satisfactory.  Disinfec- 
tion is  difficult  where  boards  are  put  on  horizontally.  The 
inside  walls  should  be  smooth.  This  aids  in  keeping  the  house 
sanitary. 

Height  of  the  house.  The  height  of  the  poultry  house  de- 
pends upon  the  type  of  roof  used.  Ordinarily  in  a  house  with 
a  semi-monitor  roof  the  back  should  be  about  5  feet  high  and 
the  front  about  7.  In  a  house  16  feet  wide,  with  a  shed  roof, 
the  back  should  be  about  5  feet  and  the  front  should  be  about 
7!  or  8  feet  high. 


POULTRY  171 

Ventilation.  Figure  73  illustrates  how  a  house  can  be  well 
ventilated  without  drafts.  Notice  the  open  shutters  in  front 
and  the  open  end  at  the  rear. 

Windows.  There  should  be  about  i  square  foot  of  window 
to  every  15  square  feet  of  floor  space.  A  house  that  has  400 
square  feet  of  floor  space  should  have  about  27  square  feet  of 


Windows  set  horizontally  permit  the  sunlight  to  shine 
over  only  a  small  portion  of  the  house. 


FIG.  74.  —  Windows  set  vertically  permit  the  sun's  rays  to  shine  over  more  of  the  floor 


space. 


glass  space  to  the  south  and  have  3  or  4  small  windows  at  the 
back.  Tall  windows  are  better  than  wide  windows,  for  they 
admit  the  sunlight  over  a  greater  area.  Windows  should  be 
kept  clean  to  insure  the  maximum  degree  of  light,  warmth,  and 
disinfection  from  the  sun's  rays. 

The  windows  on  the  south  side  should  be  placed  fairly  high 
so  that  sunlight  may  strike  the  remotest  corners.  See  cuts  of 
houses  on  page  172. 


172 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


FIG.  75.  —  This  is  a  shed  roof. 


FIG.  76.  —  This  is  a  gable  roof. 


Types  of  roofs.  There  are  five  types  of  roofs.  From  the 
figures  it  can  be  determined  when  each  may  be  used  to  advantage. 
The  pitch  of  roofs  should  range  from  a  fourth  to  a  third  slope. 

Shed  Roof 
Advantages 

Turns  all  the  water  to  the  back 
Admits  sunshine  to  all  parts 
Is  the  cheapest  roof 
Disadvantages 

Cannot  be  used  to  advantage 
in    a    house    more    than    16 
feet  deep 
Gable  Roof 
Advantages 

Can  be  used  in  a  wider  house 
Disadvantages 

Requires  two  sets  of  rafters 
Does    not    admit   a  maximum 

amount  of  sunlight 
Monitor  Roof 
Advantages 

When  properly  made  may  give 
good  ventilation  and  sunshine 
May  be  used  in  a  very  wide  house 
Disadvantages 

Requires  four  sets  of  rafters 
Is  more  expensive 
Semi-monitor  Roof 
Advantages 

Admits  light  into  all  parts  of 

the  house 
FIG.  78.  —  Semi-monitor  roof.  May  be  well  ventilated 


FIG.  77.  —  This  is  a  monitor  type 
of  roof. 


POULTRY  173 


5.    Combination  Roof 
Advantages 

Used  in  the  open-front  houses 

Admits  sunlight 
Disadvantages 


Is  not  as  good  as  the  semi-      FlG-  7Q.  _  combination  roof. 

monitor 

Interior  fixtures  in  poultry  houses.  —  The  essential  points 
to  consider  in  putting  in  interior  fixtures  are : 

1.  Cheapness  of  construction 

2.  Convenience  to  caretaker 

3.  Saving  of  space 

4.  Movability 

5.  Arrangement  so  that  they  may  be  easily  disinfected 

6.  Adaptability  to  the  breed  of  fowls  raised 

One  or  more  of  these  points  will  be  discussed  briefly  with 
each  interior  fixture  mentioned. 

Roosts.  If  the  fowls  are  to  stay  in  the  poultry  house  over- 
night, roosts  must  be  provided.  Wild  chickens  roosted  on  the 
branches  of  trees.  Round  branches  are  not  best  suited  for  fowls 
to  roost  upon.  An  undue  pressure  is  borne  on  the  breastbone 
of  the  fowl  when  roosting  on  a  rounded  or  edged  surface.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  crooked  breastbones  are  found  in  chickens. 
Roosts  are  made  most  economically  by  using  2X3  inch  or  2  X  4 
inch  lumber  and  slightly  rounding  the  edges.  They  should  be 
fitted  on  the  sides  so  that  they  may  be  easily  removed.  A 
smooth  roost  aids  in  keeping  out  insects  and  in  disinfection. 
All  the  roosts  should  be  on  one  level,  for  when  they  are  placed 
slantwise  one  above  the  other,  like  the  steps  on  a  leaning  ladder, 
the  fowls  are  constantly  pushing  each  other  off  in  order  to  get 
on  the  upper  perch,  and  are  often  injured. 

The  amount  of  roost  space  needed  depends  on  the  size  of  the 


174  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

fowls.  Small  breeds  will  need  about  7  inches  of  perch  room; 
medium  breeds  9  inches;  and  large  breeds  from  10  to  12  inches. 
The  rear  perch  should  be  about  1 2  inches  from  the  wall,  and  the 
roost  poles  14  inches  apart.  The  height  of  the  roosts  also  de- 
pends upon  the  kind  of  fowls.  Light  breeds  can  fly  from  a  height 
of  4  or  5  feet  without  injury,  but  the  perches  for  large  breeds 
should  not  be  more  than  2  or  3  feet  from  the  floor.  If  a  droppings 
board  is  used,  it  should  be  at  least  30  inches  from  the  floor,  so 
that  the  floor  space  underneath  may  be  used.  Roosts  may  be 
fastened  to  the  walls  with  hinges  so  that  during  the  day  they  can 
be  fastened  to  the  roof.  This  will  keep  the  fowls  from  roosting 
during  the  day  in  winter  time. 

Scratching  shed.  If  during  the  winter  the  fowls  are  to  stay 
in  the  poultry  house  in  the  daytime,  a  scratching  shed  will  aid 
in  egg  production,  and  keep  the  fowls  in  good  condition.  This 
shed  should  have  an  open  front  and  be  15  X  15  feet.  Twelve 
or  fifteen  inches  of  straw,  with  a  little  grain  scattered  through 
it  in  this  shed,  will  keep  the  fowls  active,  warm,  and  busy  during 
the  cold  winter  days. 

Nests.  Fowls  like  a  dark  secluded  nest  for  laying,  so  nests 
should  be  placed  in  the  back  part  of  the  house.  The  nests  should 
be  movable  and  should  be  taken  out,  aired,  and  sunned  occa- 
sionally. The  size  of  the  nests  depends  on  the  breed,  from 
10  X  12  to  12  X  14  inches.  Trap  nests  are  used  when  accurate 
records  are  wanted.  These  are  made  with  a  door  that  closes 
automatically  when  the  hen  enters  the  nest.  Where  an  egg- 
producing  strain  is  being  developed,  trap  nesting  is  essential,  for 
accurate  records  of  each  hen  can  then  be  kept.  It  is  advisable 
that  a  slanting  board  be  placed  on  top  of  trap  nests  to  prevent 
fowls  from  roosting  on  them. 

Feeding  hoppers.  Factories  have  turned  out  many  kinds  of 
feeding  hoppers,  but  any  farmer  can  construct  them  much  more 


POULTRY  175 

cheaply.  The  capacities  of  hoppers  vary  from  a  few  pounds  to 
two  or  three  hundred  pounds.  They  are  sometimes  made  with 
several  compartments. 


Courtesy  of  Mountain  Grove  Poultry  Exp.  Station. 

FIG.  80.  —  A  dry-mash  hopper,  four  and  one  half  feet  long,  which  holds  over  150  pounds 
of  dry  mash.  The  opening  through  which  the  fowls  eat  should  be  four  inches  in  the  clear. 
Wires  are  placed  across  this  opening  three  inches  apart  to  prevent  the  birds  from  getting 
in  and  also  prevent  them  from  flipping  the  mash  out.  This  shows  the  top  door  open  ready 
for  filling. 

The  main  advantages  of  hoppers  are : 

1 .  They  save  labor. 

2.  Where  several  feeds  are  provided  in  the  hopper,  the  fowls 
may  balance  the  feeds  according  to  individual  needs. 

3.  Where  fowls  are  fed  in  a  flock,  shy  fowls  seldom  get  enough 
feed.     The  feeding  hopper  supplies  their  needs.     Hoppers  should 


i76 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


be  economically  made,  be  hung  in  a  well-lighted  place,  and  their 
capacity  range  from  two  to  three  hundred  pounds  per  hundred 
fowls.  The  kinds  of  feeds  used  in  hoppers  will  be  discussed  under 
feeds  and  feeding. 

Drinking  pans.  Drinking  pans  or  buckets  should  be  placed 
upon  platforms  about  i%  or  2  feet  high.  The  main  consideration 
is  to  prevent  dust,  dirt,  and  filth  from  falling  into  the  water. 

Fresh,  pure  water  is  essential 
to  egg  production,  for  about 
66.7  per  cent  of  the  egg  is 
water.  The  water  should  be 
pure  and  fresh,  warm  in  winter 
and  moderately  cool  in  sum- 
mer. 

Dust  wallows.  Dust  wal- 
lows should  be  about  10  inches 
deep,  large,  and  preferably 
placed  outside  of  the  hen- 
house in  a  sunny  spot.  Dust 
baths  are  necessary  to  kill  the 
lice  and  mites.  Many  lice  are 
lost  in  the  dust  wallow,  and 
others  inhale  so  much  dust  into  their  breathing  openings 
(spiracles)  that  they  die  because  of  lack  of  air.  Equal  parts  of 
fine  road  dust,  sand,  and  ashes  make  an  excellent  dust  wallow. 
Eggs  and  egg  production.  The  average  annual  farm  income 
from  eggs,  according  to  the  United  States  Census  Report,1  is 
$99,  and  from  chickens  sold,  $44.40.  About  two  thirds  of  the 
average  farm  income  from  poultry  is  from  the  sale  of  eggs.  Egg 
production  constitutes  the  principal  part  of  the  poultry  industry ; 
meat  production  is  a  by-product.  If  the  estimates  are  correct 

1 1920. 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Co. 

FIG.  81 .  —  One  way  to  keep  the  water  clean. 
Fresh,  clean,  moderately  warm  water  is  as  es- 
sential to  egg  production  as  food. 


POULTRY 


177 


that  the  annual  income  from  poultry  is  about  $1,047,989,919 
in  the  United  States,  then  the  total  egg  values  are  approximately 
$700,000,000.  This  is  about 
equal  in  value  to  the  total 
wheat  products.  Eggs  in 
many  homes  pay  for  groceries 
and  clothes.  Many  farmers 
consider  poultry  products  a 
side  line,  but,  in  large  num- 
bers of  cases,  the  sale  of  eggs 
is  the  mainstay  for  general 
running  expenses. 

Parts  of  an  egg.     An  egg 
is   composed   of   the    shell, 
two  membranes  beneath  the 
shell,    an    air   sac   between 
the  membranes,  three  layers 
of  the  white,  the  germ,  and 
the  yolk.     Examine  an  egg     FIG.  82. 
shell  to  find  the  two  mem- 
branes.    An  egg  contains  water,  66.7  per  cent;  protein,  12.2  per 
cent;  ash,  12  per  cent;  fat,  8.9  per  cent. 

COMPOSITION  or  MILK  AND  EDIBLE  PART  OF  EGGS 


•  The  composition  of  the  edible  por- 
tion of  an  egg. 


WATER 

FAT 

SUGAR 

PROTEIN 

ASH 

Milk      
Eggs      

87% 
74-o% 

3.69% 
10.0% 

4.98% 
0.00% 

i  f07 
3-5  /c 

15-0% 

0-7% 

1.0% 

Building  of  an  egg.  An  egg  is  built  in  parts.  Just  as  a 
knife  is  made  a  piece  at  a  time,  —  the  blade  by  one  man  probably, 
the  part  that  holds  the  blade  by  another,  and  the  handle  by  still 


i78 


LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


another,  —  so  also  is  the  egg  made  a  piece  at  a  time.  There  are 
three  essential  parts  of  an  egg  —  the  yolk,  the  white,  and  the 
shell.  Each  part  is  made  in  a  separate  part  of  the  egg-laying 

organ.  The  yolk  is  developed 
in  the  ovary;  the  white  (al- 
bumen) is  laid  on  the  yolk  in 
the  first  two  thirds  of  the  ovi- 
duct ;  and  the  shell  is  built 
over  the  white  of  the  egg  in 
the  lower  third  of  the  oviduct. 
Each  of  the  three  parts  of  an 
egg  is  developed  by  a  special- 
ized organ. 

The  time  required  to  build 
each  part  of  the  egg  varies 
somewhat.  But  it  may  be 
generally  stated  as  follows : 
All  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  that 
a  fowl  is  ever  to  lay  are  de- 
veloped in  the  growing  fowl 
before  it  is  5  or  6  months 
old.  These  yolks  are  very 
small,  ranging  in  size  from 
that  of  a  pinpoint  up  to  the 
normal  size  as  found  in  eggs. 
It  was  found  by  an  expert  examination  that  these  yolks  in  the 
grapelike  ovary  vary  in  number  from  1500  to  3600.  It  is  claimed 
upon  good  authority  that  more  yolks  are  present  in  the  fowl 
than  can  ever  be  laid.  When  the  yolks  mature,  they  pass  into 
the  oviduct  where  the  white  is  laid  over  the  yolk  in  three  layers. 
The  time  required  to  do  this  is  from  6  to  8  hours.  The  shell  is 
made  in  from  1 2  to  24  hours. 


Courtesy  of  Mountain  Grove  Exp.  Station. 

FIG.  83.  —  Photograph  of  the  egg  organs 
to  show  the  sections  where  different  parts  of 
the  egg  are  made. 


POULTRY 


179 


Feeding  for  egg  production.  The  egg  is  a  finished  product 
made  up  of  parts.  Before  a  knife  can  be  produced,  all  the  parts 
must  be  provided ;  so,  also,  in  the  making  of  an  egg,  every  part 
must  be  provided  before  there  can  be  an  egg.  No  marketable 
egg  is  produced  without  a  yolk,  a  white,  and  a  shell.  Therefore, 
in  feeding  for  egg  production,  feed  should  be  provided  in  such 
proportions  that  an  equal  number  of  yolks,  whites,  and  shells 


Courtesy  Univ.  of  Missouri. 
FIG.  84.  —  Sour  milk  for  chicken  feeding. 

may  be  built.  To  supply  feed  in  such  a  proportion  to  a  hen  as 
to  build  50  yolks,  50  whites,  and  no  shells,  would  mean  no  egg 
production ;  because  no  one  has  ever  heard  of  a  case  in  which 
50  eggs  having  no  shells  were  laid.  After  the  feed  for  the  pro- 
duction of  50  yolks  and  50  whites  has  been  supplied,  feed  that 
would  have  built  50  shells  would  have  rounded  out  man's  aid 
in  giving  the  hen  a  chance  to  develop  50  eggs.  To  be  success- 
ful in  aiding  the  hen  to  develop  eggs  rapidly,  one  must  realize 
that  not  all  kinds  of  poultry  food  are  well  suited  to  egg  produc- 
tion. Professor  C.  T.  Patterson  of  the  Mountain  Grove  Experi- 
ment Station  has  worked  out  the  following  way  of  balancing  a 
feed  for  the  maximum  egg  production.  It  is  a  suggestion  worthy 
of  our  consideration. 


i8o  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

AN  UNBALANCED  AND  A  BALANCED  RATION 


FEED 

YOLKS 

WHITES 

FEED 

YOLKS 

WHITES 

ioo  lb.  corn  .     .     . 

255 

134 

ioo  lb.  corn  . 

255 

134 

TOO  lb.  wheat     .     . 

243 

182 

ioo  lb.  wheat     .     . 

243 

182 

20  lb.  oats   .     . 

39 

31 

20  lb.  oats    .     .     . 

39 

31 

20  lb.  bran  .     .     . 

3i 

41 

20  lb.  bran  .     .     . 

3i 

41 

20  lb.  shorts     .     . 

4i 

44 

20  lb.  shorts     .     . 

4i 

44 

20  lb.  cornmeal     . 

50 

29 

20  lb.  cornmeal 

50 

29 

20  lb.  meatscraps  . 

20 

221 

Totals   .... 

6^0 

4-6l 

670 

682 

"  The  above  table  assumes  that  one  pound  of  carbohydrates 
will  make  3^  yolk's  and  one  pound  of  protein  will  make  i6f 
whites.  This  is  above  maintaining  the  body  where  hens  are  fed 
all  they  want." 

Grit,  oyster  shells,  or  ground  limestone  should  be  provided  for 
the  hens,  from  which  they  provide  material  for  the  egg  shells. 
To  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  above  feed  about  one  and 
one  half  pounds  of  fine  table  salt  and  two  pounds  of  fine  char- 
coal should  be  added. 

Under  general  farm  conditions  only  two  or  three  feeds  will  be 
used.  In  order  to  balance  a  corn  ration,  common  poultry  feed, 
it  will  prove  economic  to  add  one  part  of  meatscraps  to  ten  parts 
of  corn.  This  will  not  quite  balance  the  ration,  for  we  will  have 
the  following : 


YOLKS 

WHITES 

Corn,  ioo  lb  

2"\< 

134 

Meatscraps  10  lb 

IO 

no 

Total    

26  ^ 

244. 

POULTRY  181 

Therefore  slightly  more  than  one  tenth  meatscraps  should 
be  fed.  If  skimmed  milk  is  fed,  the  following  may  be  used  as  a 
basis  to  figure  its  value :  One  hundred  pounds  of  skimmed  milk 
will  make  22  yolks  and  52  whites;  and  the  same  amount  of 
buttermilk  will  make  22  yolks  and  65  whites.  Figure  84,  taken 
from  Bulletin  No.  79,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri,  illustrates  what  feed  means  in  economic  egg 
production. 

Market  grades  of  eggs.  Eggs  sold  to  the  country  stores  should 
be  fresh,  clean,  infertile,  uniform  in  color,  shape,  and  size,  and 
should  weigh  from  24  to  28  ounces  per  dozen.  All  white  eggs 
should  be  white.  All  brown  eggs  should  have  a  uniform  shade 
of  brown.  Unusually  large  eggs  are  undesirable,  for  they  do  not 
fit  well  into  the  fillers  of  egg  cases,  and  are  often  broken.  Eggs 
weighing  24  ounces  are  worth  about  15  per  cent  less  than  eggs 
weighing  28  ounces.  Why  produce  infertile  eggs?  Because 
hens  will  produce  as  many,  if  not  more,  infertile  than  fertile  eggs, 
and  infertile  eggs  are  not  affected  by  hot  weather.  Every  egg 
should  be  covered  with  a  shell  of  sufficient  strength  so  that  it 
will  carry  without  breaking. 

Preventable  losses  in  market  eggs.  Circular  No.  140  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Husbandry  states  that  the  estimated  average 
annual  loss  of  eggs  in  the  United  States  is  about  17  per  cent,  or 
$45,000,000.  The  distribution  of  causes  for  these  losses  is  as 
follows : 

PER  CENT 

From  dirties 2.0 

From  breakage 2.0 

From  chick-developed  eggs 5.0 

From  held  and  shrunken  eggs         5.0 

From  rotten  eggs 2.5 

From  moldy  and  off-flavored  eggs 0.5 

Total   .... 17-0 


182  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

These  losses  can  largely  be  prevented.  Clean  nests  and  daily 
gathering  will  prevent  dirty  eggs.  Breakage  can  be  reduced 
by  shipping  only  eggs  with  a  good  shell  and  of  a  normal  shape 
and  size.  Chick  development  can  occur  only  in  fertile  eggs. 
Separating  hens  and  cocks  during  the  season  that  eggs  are  pro- 
duced for  the  market  will  secure  the  production  of  infertile  eggs, 
the  only  guarantee  against  chick  development.  All  mature  male 
birds  should  be  killed,  sold,  or  confined  as  soon  as  the  hatching 
season  is  over.  "  Swat  the  rooster  "  after  the  breeding  season 
will  prevent  the  loss  of  many  eggs.  T.  E.  Quisenberry,  of  the 
Mountain  Grove,  Missouri,  Poultry  Experiment  Station,  states, 
"  that  the  rooster  spoils  one-half  million  dollars'  worth  of  eggs 
a  month  from  June  to  October  each  year  in  Missouri  alone." 
Harry  R.  Lewis,  Poultry  Husbandman  of  the  New  Jersey  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  says  in  "  Productive  Poultry  Hus- 
bandry "  :  "  There  is  probably  nothing  the  poultryman  can  do 
which  would  improve  the  quality  of  eggs  for  table  use  as  the 
production  of  infertile  eggs."  To  prevent  the  loss  due  to  heat 
and  evaporation,  eggs  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place.  The 
losses  due  to  decay  may  be  partly  prevented  by  marketing  eggs 
twice  every  week,  especially  during  the  summer  months. 

Preservation  of  eggs.  Since  eggs  are  produced  in  greatest 
numbers  in  March,  April,  and  May,  it  is  often  desirable  to  pre- 
serve some  of  the  surplus  supply  for  use  the  following  winter. 
One  of  the  cheapest  and  most  convenient  egg  preservatives  for 
farm  use  is  made  by  adding  one  part  of  water  glass  (sodium 
silicate)  to  nine  parts  of  rain  water,  well  boiled  and  cooled. 
This  solution  is  put  into  ordinary  stone  jars  holding  from  12  to 
15  dozen  eggs.  The  top  of  the  eggs  should  be  covered  by  at 
least  two  inches  of  the  preservative.  It  is  advisable  to  cover  the 
jar  with  oilcloth,  or  something  similar,  to  prevent  evaporation. 
The  jars  should  be  kept  in  a  place  where  the  temperature  is 


POULTRY  183 

about  60°  Fahr.  or  cooler.  Eggs  may  be  kept  in  excellent 
condition  by  this  method.  The  shrinkage  of  the  eggs  over  a 
period  of  9  months  is  often  as  little  as  one  per  cent.  Preserv- 
ing eggs  is  analogous  to  curing  meats,  canning  fruits,  and  ensiling 
corn. 

There  are  many  other  methods  of  preserving  eggs,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  preservation  in  limewater  and  varnish- 
ing with  vaseline.  Eggs  preserved  in  limewater  are  good,  but 
they  have  often  a  disagreeable  odor  and  taste ;  and  to  varnish 
eggs  with  vaseline  takes  too  much  time.  If  the  eggs  are  fresh 
and  the  directions  for  the  use  of  water  glass  are  followed,  the 
results  will  be  satisfactory. 

How  to  select  hens  that  will  lay.  —  Housing  and  feeding 
and  exercise  are  all  essential  for  egg  production,  but  with  the 
best  of  care  and  management  these  will  not  make  all  hens  lay. 
Before  eggs  can  be  produced,  there  must  be  a  hen  of  proper  con- 
formation. It  has  been  found  by  the  trap-nest  system  that  some 
hens  will  never  lay  an  egg.  We  have  known  for  some  time  that 
some  horses  are  race  horses  and  others  are  draft  horses.  We 
also  know  that  the  most  economic  milk-producing  cows  have  a 
dairy  conformation,  but  it  has  only  been  recently  known  that  a 
laying  hen  differs  as  much  from  a  non-layer  as  a  dairy  cow  differs 
from  a  beef -producing  cow.  Walter  Hogan,1  author  of  the  Hogan 
Test,  has  discovered  the  characteristics  that  indicate  egg  pro- 
duction. To  him  we  are  indebted  for  the  following  established 
facts  regarding  egg-producing  capacity  (after  all  other  factors 
have  been  provided)  : 

i.  The  measurement  of  the  fowl  from  the  rear  of  the  breastbone 
to  the  pelvic  bone  is  very  significant.  If  the  distance  is  only 

1  "  The  Call  of  the  Hen,"  by  Walter  Hogan,  published  by  The  American  School 
of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Mountain  Grove,  Mo.,  will  be  found  helpful  in  poultry 
study. 


184  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

one  finger's  width,  the  fowl  will  lay  very  few  eggs ;  but  if  it  is 
5  or  6  fingers'  width,  the  capacity  of  the  fowl  for  egg  production 
is  greater. 

2.  The  egg-producing  capacity  depends  on  the  thickness  of 
the  pelvic  bone,  which  includes  the  skin,  muscles,  and  gristles. 
A  thin  pelvic  bone  indicates  high  capacity  for  egg  production ; 
but  a  heavy,  thick  pelvic  bone  indicates  a  low  capacity.  For 
illustration,  a  hen  having  one-finger  capacity  and  a  pelvic  bone 
^s  inch  thick  would  be  capable  of  producing  36  eggs  the  first 
laying  year,  provided  all  other  factors  for  egg  production  were 
correct.  But  if  she  had  a  one-finger  capacity  and  her  pelvic 
bone  was  f  inch  thick,  she  would  be  incapable  of  producing  any 
eggs. 

In  view  of  the  fact  stated  above  that  poultry  and  poultry 
products  constitute  so  large  a  part  of  the  output  of  the  farm, 
the  importance  of  this  discovery  cannot  be  overemphasized. 
In  consequence  of  the  application  of  the  principle  thus  estab- 
lished, the  farm  poultry  flocks  can  be  reduced  to  the  producers, 
which  will  result  in  the  lowering  of  the  cost  of  production.  By 
proper  mating  the  farm  flock  can  be  graded  up  to  higher  produc- 
tive capacity,  which  will  both  increase  the  output  and  decrease 
the  cost  of  production,  thereby  making  greater  gains  for  the 
farmer.  The  simplicity  of  the  operation  of  the  Hogan  Test  makes 
it  intensely  practical,  and  too  much  credit  cannot  be  given  to 
the  agricultural  schools  and  county  demonstration  agents  for 
their  part  in  disseminating  its  value  and  method.  There  is  ab- 
solutely no  excuse  for  wasting  feed  on  hens  that  not  only  can- 
not lay  but  that  cannot  get  any  fatter  or  more  ready  for  the 
market  or  the  table. 

The  table  on  page  185  combines  the  main  points  of  the  Hogan 
Test.  Every  boy  and  girl  should  study  it  and  be  able  to  apply 
it. 


POULTRY 


185 


THE  RELATION  OF  THICKNESS  OF  PELVIC  BONE  AND  CAPACITY  TO  EGG 
PRODUCTION  WHEN  CONDITION  is  GOOD 


THICKNESS  OF 
PELVIC  BONE 

I-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

2-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

3-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

4-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

5-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

6-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

With  Nervous 

Inches 

Temperament 

_l 

36 

96 

180 

2  2O 

250 

280 

'I 

32 

87 

166 

205 

235 

265 

T5 

28 

78 

152 

I9O 

220 

250 

* 

24 

69 

138 

175 

205 

235 

A 

20 

60 

124 

160 

190 

2  2O 

f 

16 

51 

no 

145 

175 

205 

Slow 

Temperament 

_7_ 

12 

42 

96 

130 

1  6O 

190 

-J- 

8 

33 

82 

115 

145 

175 

A 

4 

24 

68 

IOO 

130 

160 

5 

f 

0 

15 

54 

85 

H5 

145 

Bilious 

Temperament 

i-1 

6 

40 

70 

IOO 

130 

3 

0 

26 

55 

85 

115 

« 

12 

40 

70 

TOO 

1 

0 

25 

55 

85 

if 

10 

40 

70 

Lymphatic 

Temperament 

I 

0 

25 

55 

JrV 

10 

40 

Ii 

0 

25 

'A 

10 

4 

0 

The  capacity  of  any  hen  for  egg  production  can  be  determined 
almost  accurately  from  this  table.  To  illustrate,  a  hen  having 
a  pelvic  bone  TV  inch  thick,  and  having  a  5-finger  capacity,  will 
yield  250  eggs  per  year,  when  properly  cared  for.  Temperament 
will  affect  the  egg  yield  to  some  extent. 


i86  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

3.  The  width  between  the  pelvic  bones  is  also  indicative  of 
egg  production.     If  there  is  very  little  space  between  the  pelvic 
bones,  the  chances  for  egg  production  are  few ;  but  if  the  pelvic 
bones  are  wide  apart,  greater  productivity  is  indicated. 

4.  The  condition  of  the  fowl  raises  or  lowers  chances  for  egg 
production.     Condition  is  indicated  by  the  covering  of  the  keel 
of  the  breastbone.     If  the  breastbone  is  well  covered  with  flesh, 
the  fowl  is  in  good  condition,  which  indicates,  if  all  other  factors 
are  the  same,  high  egg  production.     But  if  the  breastbone  is 
poorly  covered,  a  lower  yield  of  eggs  may  be  expected  than  is 
indicated  by  the  above  numbers. 

5.  The  body  quality  also  has  an  important  bearing  on  egg 
yield.     Fowls  with  soft,   pliable  bodies,  all  other  things  being 
equal,  produce  more  eggs  than  fowls  with  hard  bodies. 

6.  In  the  yellow  skinned  varieties  we  may  know  by  the  color 
whether  the  fowl  is  laying,  for  the  yellow  pigment  in  the  skin  is 
deposited  in  the  yellow  of  the  egg,  and  in  good  layers  most  of  the 
yellow  pigment  is  lost  from  the  body  of  the  fowl  in  this  manner. 
The  yellow  color  disappears  in  regular  order  as  follows :  In  a 
week  or  two  the  vent  becomes  light  in  color ;   in  six  weeks  the 
color  disappears  in  a  heavy  layer  from  the  base  of  the  beak; 
in  15  to  20  weeks  the  color  of  the  shanks  changes  to  a  light  color, 
and  the  last  place  to  change  to  a  light  color  is  the  elbow  of  the 
fowl. 

The  yellow  pigment  comes  back  into  the  vent,  eye  ring,  ear 
lobe,  beak,  and  shanks  in  the  same  sequence  as  it  left,  when  the 
bird  stops  laying ;  only  the  color  returns  much  more  quickly  than 
it  went  out. 

A  good  layer  is  usually  more  gentle  and  docile  when  handled ; 
but  a  poor  layer  usually  squawks  when  caught. 

7.  A  broad,  medium  long,  or  long  back  is  essential  to  large  egg 
production.     Fowls  with  narrow,  short  backs  have  not  enough 


POULTRY 


187 


room  for  the  digestive  organs,  heart,  and  lungs,  and  liver.  Fowls 
with  baggy  bodies  are  not  the  best  egg  producers.  The  fat  hen 
has  a  large  deposit  of  fat  in  the  abdomen,  causing  the  abdomen  to 
become  baggy.  In  an  active  laying  hen,  the  body  is  well  held 
up,  almost  free  from 
fat,  and  is  on  a  level 
with  the  keel  of  the 
breastbone.  C.  T. 
Patterson  says  : 
"  There  is  an  old  ex- 
pression, '  Hens  get 
too  fat  to  lay,'  which 
is  incorrect.  It  should 
be  said,  *  The  hen 
can't  lay  is  the  reason 
she  gets  too  fat.' ' 

Capacity,  thickness 
of  pelvic  bone,  width 
between  pelvic  bones, 
condition  of  the  fowl, 
body  quality,  color  of 
yellow  pigment,  and  a 
broad,  medium  long  back  are  essential  characteristics  of  a  good 
layer.  The  bright  red  color  of  the  comb  does  not  last  long,  and 
indicates  that  the  fowl  is  either  laying  or  will  soon  lay,  but  does 
not  prove  that  a  fowl  is  a  good  layer  the  entire  year.  The  fact 
is  that  heavy  laying  soon  takes  the  bright  color  out  of  the  comb. 

Egg-producing  characteristics  transmitted.  —  Since  the  male 
bird  is  at  least  half  of  the  future  flock,  it  is  highly  important 
that  he  possess  the  characteristics  which  are  indicative  of  the 
ability  to  transmit  high  egg-producing  characteristics.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  we  give  the  following  table : 


FIG.  85 .  —  A  hen  of  this  type  seldom  is  a  good  layer.    She 
is  inactive  and  has  become  so  fat  because  she  can't  lay. 


i88 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


CAPACITY  AND  THICKNESS  OF  PELVIC  BONES  IN  A  MALE  BIRD  IN  RELA- 
TION TO  EGG- TRANSMITTING  QUALITIES 


THICKNESS 
OF  PELVIC 
BONES 

I-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

CAPACITY 

2-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

2^-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

3-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

3^-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

4-FlNGER 

CAPACITY 

TV  inch 

84 

132 

180 

200 

235 

257 

280 

f  inch 

75 

120 

166 

185 

220 

242 

265 

Y\  inch 

67 

109 

152 

171 

205 

227 

250 

f  inch 

58 

98 

138 

156 

I9O 

212 

235 

y5^  inch 

50 

87 

124 

142 

175 

197 

2  2O 

finch 

41 

75 

no 

127 

1  60 

182 

205 

YJ  inch 

33 

65 

96 

113 

145 

I67 

190 

finch 

24 

53 

82 

98 

130 

152 

175 

y^  inch 

16 

42 

68 

84 

115 

137 

160 

finch 

7 

30 

54 

69 

IOO 

122 

145 

ffinch 

o 

19 

40 

55 

85 

I07 

130 

f  inch 

8 

26 

40 

70 

92 

115 

yf  inch 

0 

12 

26 

55 

77 

IOO 

finch 

O 

n 

40 

62 

85 

Tf  inch 

0 

25 

47 

70 

i  inch 

10 

32 

55 

lyg-  inches 

0 

17 

40 

if  inches 

o 

25 

IY^-  inches 

10 

if  inches 

0 

From  the  preceding  table  it  may  be  observed  that  a  cock  bird 
having  a  pelvic  bone  f  inch  thick  and  2f-finger  capacity  repre- 
sents a  i56-egg  type ;  but  if  his  pelvic  bone  is  -^  inch  thick,  and 
his  capacity  is  4  fingers,  then  he  represents  a  28o-egg  type.  Se- 
lect only  those  cock  birds  which  have  a  very  thin  pelvic  bone  and 
a  large  abdominal  capacity,  for  they  will  transmit  egg-producing 
qualities. 

The  American  egg-laying  contest  associations  have  proved  the 
following  suggestions  profitable  in  selecting  hens  that  will  pro- 
duce a  large  number  of  eggs. 


POULTRY  189 

1.  Keep  the  birds  with  large  plump  combs  and  wattles. 

2.  Keep  hens  with  pale  vents,  pale  beaks,  and  pale  legs.     They 
have  proved  to  be  good  layers. 

3.  Keep  the  late  molters. 

4.  Keep  the  pullets  which  mature  quickly  and  start  laying 
first.     Those  which  start  laying  when  less  than  200  days  old,  or 
nearest  that  age,  are  the  best  layers  if  they  have  had  the  right 
care. 

5.  Market  those  which  have  been  slow  to  feather  or  seem  to 
lack  vitality. 

6.  The  skin  of  the  best  layers  should  be  rather  loose  and 
flabby  on  the  abdomen  between  the  vent  and  the  breastbone. 

7.  The  pelvic  bones  must  be  thin,  straight,  flexible,  and  wide 
apart. 

8.  Market  the  hens  which  are  bagging  behind  and  which  have 
a  heavy,  fat,  thick  abdomen,  which  hangs  below  the  point  of 
the  breastbone. 

9.  Keep  the  hustlers  and  heavy  eaters  that  go  to  bed  late 
and  with  full  crops. 

10.  Birds  that  have  long  toenails,  that  show  no  signs  of  being 
workers,  are  usually  unprofitable. 

11.  Choose  the  bird  with  a  broad  back,  a  long  body,  and  a 
stout  build. 

12.  If  a  bird  is  not  molting  and  yet  has  a  small,  dried-up 
comb,  covered  with  a  sort  of  whitish  substance,  or  if  the  bird 
has  thick  or  crooked  pelvic  bones,  which  will  be  found  on  each 
side  of  the  vent  and  about  the  point  of  the  breastbone,  she  is  a 
money  loser. 

Poultry  diseases.  —  Prevention  of  poultry  diseases  is  more 
important  than  curing  them.  There  are  two  factors  essential 
in  preventing  poultry  diseases.  These  are  breeding  and  raising 
chickens  that  have  good  vigorous  constitutions;  and  sanitary 


i  go 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


measures.  Fowls  that  lack  constitution  succumb  to  diseases 
much  more  easily  than  do  strong,  vigorous  fowls.  If  the  poultry 
house  and  poultry  yards  are  kept  clean,  most  of  the  poultry  dis- 
eases will  be  prevented.  Uncleanliness  favors  disease.  There 
are  so  many  diseases  to  which  poultry  are  subject  that  it  would 
require  a  separate  book  to  treat  them  all.  A  few  diseases  and 
enemies  of  poultry  will  be  mentioned.  Write  to  your  state 
experiment  station  for  information  on  diseases  that  may  now  be 
troubling  your  poultry ;  and  to  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  further  suggestions. 

Scaly  leg  is  caused  by  a  small  mite  that  gets  under  the  scales 
of  the  shanks  of  the  fowls.     The  symptom  of  the  disease  is 

an  enlargement  of  the 
shanks,  usually  just 
above  the  toes.  To 
treat  this  disease,  dip 
the  shanks  in  kerosene. 
This  kills  the  mites. 
Repeat  the  treatment 
in  about  a  week.  Two 
treatments  are  enough, 
except  in  rare  cases. 

Roup  is  a  contagious 
disease  which  appears 
on  the  face  of  the  fowl 
in  the  form  of  a  tumor. 


Courtesy  of  J.B.Lippincott  Co.        Qft^        ^        eyes        arg 

almost     swollen    shut. 

There  is  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  which  sometimes  obstructs 
the  breathing.  In  treating  this  disease,  isolate  all  the  fowls 
affected.  With  the  thumb  press  all  cheesy  matter  out  of 
the  tumor,  and  dip  the  part  affected  in  kerosene.  Bulletin 


POULTRY 


191 


No.  530,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  says,  "  Put 
sufficient  permanganate  of  potash  in  all  drinking  water  to  color  it 
a  deep  red."  This  is  a  cure  as  well  as  a  prevention  of  roup. 
Some  authorities  claim  that  roup  is  one  of  our  most  injurious 
poultry  diseases. 

Lice  and  mites  are  controlled  by  keeping  the  house  clean  and 
spraying  occasionally  with  a  lime  solution,  or  greasing  fowls  with 
equal  parts  of  lard  and  kerosene.  Insect 
powders  will  also  kill  lice  and  mites. 

Summary.  —  The  products  from  chick- 
ens rank  favorably  with  other  sources  of 
farm  incomes.  The  income  from  poultry 
products  in  many  cases  provides  gro- 
ceries, shoes,  and  clothing.  The  selection 
of  good  pure  bred  varieties,  according  to 
"  The  Standard  of  Perfection,"  proper 
housing,  feed,  and  care  increase  the  sales 
from  poultry  products.  Eliminating  non- 
layers  and  low  producers  raises  produc- 
tion. Cleanliness  and  combating  disease 
are  essential  to  profitable  production  of  FIG.  87.  —  The  common  hen 
poultry.  The  average  yearly  egg  produc- 
tion in  the  United  States  is  estimated  to  be  about  60  eggs  per 
hen.  It  should  be  120  or  more. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  With  "The  Standard  of  Perfection"  in  hand,  study  the  pictures  of 
the  various  breeds  of  chickens  as  to  shape,  kind  of  comb,  length  of  back, 
angle  of  tail,  etc. 

2.  With  fowls  of  several  pure  breeds  verify  the  shape  differences  noted 
in  Exercise  i,  and  as  described  in  "The  Standard  of  Perfection." 

3.  Study  from  live  fowls  the  color  of  one  or  two  pure  bred  varieties, 


I92 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


reading  the  description  of  the  variety  from  "The  Standard  of  Perfection," 
while  the  fowl  is  being  studied. 

These  three  exercises,  if  properly  done,  will  require  at  least  five  full  one- 
hour  periods.  When  these  lessons  are  attempted,  the  teacher  should  have, 
for  each  one,  at  least  an  hour  to  one  and  one  half  hours  at  her  disposal. 

4.  Judge  at  least  one  fowl  from  several  varieties,  using  "The  Standard 
of  Perfection,"  and  especially  that  part  in  which  cutting  for  defects  and 
general  disqualifications  are  mentioned. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  FOWLS 
(Note  their  variations) 


AMERICAN 
CLASS 

ASIATIC  CLASS 

MEDITERRA- 
NEAN CLASS 

ENGLISH  CLASS 

SECTION  OP  FOWL 

Perfect 

Perfect 

Perfect 

Perfect 

Shape 

Color 

Shape 

Color 

Shape 

Color 

Shape 

Color 

Symmetry  .... 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Weight 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Condition    .... 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Comb      

8 

8 

IO 

8 

Head      

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

Beak       .     .          .     . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Eves  . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Ear  lobes  and  wattles 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

6 

2 

2 

Neck      .    . 

4 

6 

4 

6 

3 

5 

4 

4 

Wings     

4 

6 

4 

6 

4 

6 

4 

6 

Back       

5 

5 

6 

4 

5 

5 

6 

4 

Tail    ...... 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

4 

6 

4 

Breast    

5 

5 

6 

4 

4 

4 

6 

4 

Body  and  fluff 

5 

3 

5 

3 

3 

2 

5 

3 

Legs  and  toes  .     . 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

5 

3 

Total  

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

5.  Have  the  pupil  bring  an  estimate   as   to   the   cost   of  construction 
and  building  material  of  some  poultry  houses,  giving  dimensions,  etc.    Be 
definite. 

6.  Have  the  pupils  bring  the  following  data  and  record  them  in  a 
notebook  in  the  following  form : 


FIG.  88.  —  Parts  of  a  fowl. 

0.  Beak.  9.  Saddle  feathers. 

1.  Comb.  10.   Sickles. 

2.  Face.  it.  Lesser  sickles. 

3.  Wattles.  12.  Tail  coverts. 

4  Ear  lobe.  13.   Main  tail  feathers. 

5.  Hackle.  14.   Wing  bow. 

6.  Breast.  15.   Wing  coverts,  forming  wing-bar. 

7.  Back.  16.  Secondaries,  wing  bay. 

8.  Saddle.  17.  Primaries,  or  flight  feathers. 


18.  Flight  coverts. 

19.  Point  of  breastbone. 

20.  Fluff. 

21.  Thigh. 

22.  Knee  joint. 

23.  Shank. 

24.  Spur. 

25.  Toes,  or  claws 


193 


1 94 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


POINTS  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  SOME  POULTRY  HOUSES 


KIND  OF 
FOUNDATION 

KIND  OF 
WALL  AND 
DESCRIPTION 

KIND  OF 
ROOF 

PROVISION 

FOR 

VENTILATION 

AMOUNT 
OF  FLOOR 
SPACE 

AMOUNT 
OF  GLASS 
SPACE 

HEIGHT  IN 
REAR,  FRONT, 

ETC. 

7.   Judge  eggs  according  to  egg  score  card.     One  dozen  as  a  sample. 
EGG  SCORE  CARD 


Q 

Q 

a 

Q 

SCALE  OF  POINTS 

E 
1 

1 

RECTE 

DENT'S 

RECTE 

DENT'S 

H 

1 

w 

Q 

RECTE 

i 

s 

£3 

o 

p 

o 

p 

o 

OH 

u 

C/J 

CJ 

* 

U 

* 

U 

i    Weight     .    .    . 

2A 

2.   Uniformity  of  size 

6 

— 

— 







— 

— 



3     Uniformity  of  shape 

6 

— 

— 













4.   Uniformity  of  color    

8 

— 

— 













5    Shell  texture 

4" 

6.   Condition  of  shell       

4 

— 















7.   Quality  (candling) 

i.   Size  of  air  cell  

24 

2.   Interior  color 

24 

Total     

IOO 

— 















Explanation  of  Score  Card. 

1.  Weight.  —  24  Points.  —  Extras  weigh  26-28  and  firsts  24-26  ounces 
per  dozen.     Cut  2  points  for  each  ounce  under  or  over  weight  in  either  class. 

2.  Uniformity  of  size.  —  6    Points.  —  All   eggs   should   be   uniform   in 
size.     One  half  point  is  allowed  each  egg.     For  each  egg  varying  from  the 
average  size,  cut  according  to  judgment. 

3.  Uniformity  of  shape.  —  6  Points.  —  All  eggs  should   be  uniform  in 
shape.     For  each  egg  varying  markedly  in  shape,  cut  from  one  fourth  to 
one  half  point. 

4.  Uniformity  of  color.  —  8  Points.  —  White  eggs  should  be  of  a  uniform 
white  shade.     Brown  eggs  may  vary  in  shade;    but  all  eggs  of  a  sample 


POULTRY 


195 


should  be  of  the  same  shade.     Two  thirds  of  a  point  is  allowed  for  each 
egg.     Cut  according  to  judgment. 

5.  Shell  texture.  —  4  Points.  —  The  shell  should   be   free   from  spots, 
breaks,  wrinkles,  and  roughness.     Cut  one  third  of  a  point  for  each  egg 
showing  the  above  defects. 

6.  Condition  of  shell.  —  4  Points.  —  Shell  should  be  bright,  fresh,  un- 
washed, free  from  dirt  or  stain.     Cut  according  to  judgment.     One  third 
point  allowed  each  egg. 

7.  Quality  (candle  eggs). 

1.  Size  of  air  cell.  —  24  Points.  —  Test  eggs  with  candle,  kerosene 
lamp,  or  electric  light.     Air  cells  should  be  small,  not  larger  than  a  dime, 
showing  freshness.     Two  points  are  allowed  for  each  egg.     An  egg  showing 
an  air  cell  as  large  as  a  quarter,  cut  the  limit,  two  points.     Cut  for  inter- 
vening sizes  of  air  cells  according  to  judgment. 

2.  Interior  color.  —  24  Points.  —  The  interior   color   when  candled 
should  have  a  reddish  color.    An  egg  having  a  dark  color  or  a  floating  yolk  is 
defective.     Two  points  are  allowed  each  egg.     Cut  according  to  judgment. 

Disqualifications.  —  A  broken,  cracked,  musty,  chick-developed,  floating- 
yolked,  or  blood-ringed  egg  will  disqualify  the  whole  dozen. 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Co. 
FIG.  89.  —  A  dozen  eggs  should  weigh  from  24  to  28  ounces. 

8.  Weigh  the  same  dozen  eggs  weekly  for  eight  or  ten  weeks,  and 
keep  the  weekly  weights.  Find  at  the  close  of  the  experiment  the  per 
cent  of  loss.  (This  loss  is  due  to  evaDoration.) 


196 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


9.  Examine  fowls  according  to  Hogan  Test  for  capacity,  thickness  of  pelvic 
bone,  condition,  —  and  fill  a  miscellaneous  column,  including  a  statement 
on  width  of  back,  constitution,  etc.     Record  your  findings.     What  is  the 
capacity  of  each  hen  examined  for  egg  production  ? 

10.  Make  a  survey  of  the  poultry  in  the  district.  —  Record  as  follows. 


FARMER'S  NAME 

VARIETY  OF  FOWLS 

CLASS  TO  WHICH 
THEY  BELONG 

BREED 

NUMBER 

- 

CHAPTER  X 
MARKETING  LIVE  STOCK 

Marketing  unfinished  live  stock.  —  The  producer  of  live 
stock  is  interested  not  only  in  the  production  of  good  live  stock, 
but  also  in  getting  the  live  stock  to  the  market  in  the  best  con- 
dition possible.  The  consumer  also  has  an  interest  in  this  prob- 
lem. The  animals  marketed  should  be  not  merely  free  from 
disease  but  in  the  very  best  of  health,  having  every  organism 
in  perfect  condition.  Besides  this,  they  should  show  a  reason- 
able degree  of  finish. 

One  of  the  greatest  losses  to  farmers  arises  from  the  fact  that 
poor  quality  stuff  is  pushed  upon  the  market,  —  stuff  that  is 
unfinished  and  unclassified,  and  must  be  shipped  and  hauled 
four  more  times  before  it  is  ready  for  the  block.  It  can  be  sold 
only  as  stockers  and  hence  is  shipped  out  to  some  farmer  and  he 
in  turn  must  haul  it  back  to  the  station  and  ship  it  again  to 
market.  Who  pays  the  bill  for  all  of  this  unnecessary  work  ? 
No  one  could  expect  any  one  to  pay  it  except  the  responsible 
party  and  that  is  the  farmer.  The  railroads  could  be  expected 
to  do  nothing  other  than  collect  the  cost  of  transportation  justly 
due  them,  and  the  consumer  cannot  be  expected  to  pay  for  some- 
thing he  does  not  get. 

If  inferior  stock  is  sold  inferior  prices  should  be  expected. 
If  medium  stuff  is  sold  medium  prices  should  be  expected.  But 
if  good  stuff  is  sold  good  prices  may  be  expected. 

Fluctuation  in  prices  often  confusing.  —  There  are  some 
factors  relative  to  the  marketing  of  live  stock  which  are  very 
perplexing  and  over  which  the  farmer  has  little  or  no  control: 

197 


198  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

(i)  What  day  or  what  month  shall  the  farmer  sell  his  live  stock 
so  that  he  may  realize  the  highest  profits  ?  No  one  knows  just 
when  the  best  prices  will  prevail.  Therefore  no  one  can  predict 
with  surety  just  when  to  get  into  the  game,  and  when  to  get 
out.  No  one  can  predict  just  what  the  prices  will  be  on  hogs, 
for  illustration,  because  the  governing  factors  are  many  and 
varied.  Hog  prices  are  governed  to  some  extent  by  the  corn 
yield,  by  the  number  of  hogs  and  cattle  in  this  and  other  countries, 
by  the  crop  conditions,  and  also  by  the  amount  of  meat  in  cold 
storage.  (2)  Again  the  real  value  of  a  dollar  has  its  effect  upon 
the  price  of  hogs.  During  the  World  War  the  American  dollar 
was  worth  43  cents  at  one  time  and  hogs  sold  for  about  24  cents 
a  pound.  What  is  the  difference  to  the  farmer  if  he  gets  12 
cents  for  his  hogs  and  a  dollar  is  worth  86  cents,  or  he  gets  24 
cents  a  pound  and  the  dollar  is  worth  43  cents  ?  The  best  thing 
he  can  do  is  to  sell  when  the  stuff  is  high  and  buy  when  it  is  low. 
(3)  Constant  employment  of  the  laboring  man,  and  a  steady 
money  income  will  increase  perceptibly  the  meat  consumption 
of  the  country.  Prosperity  in  foreign  countries,  which  is  not 
under  the  control  of  any  one,  will  increase  the  demand  for  exports 
of  meat  products. 

Therefore,  all  in  all,  the  marketing  of  live  stock  is  rather  com- 
plex and  there  are  many  factors  which  are  not  under  control 
which  may  affect  the  price  on  live  stock. 

There  are  three  things,  however,  which  will  assist  the  farmer 
to  a  certain  extent  in  marketing  his  live  stock.  These  we  will 
state  in  the  form  of  three  simple  precepts : 

1.  Know  your  markets. 

2.  Know  the  market  classes  and  grades  of  live  stock. 

3.  Know  the  principles  underlying  cooperative  marketing. 

i.  Know  your  markets.  For  every  producer  of  live  stock 
to  know  his  markets  helps  him,  helps  the  distributor,  and  helps 


MARKETING  LIVE   STOCK  199 

the  consumer.  A  knowledge  of  the  markets  helps  the  producer 
because  then  he  can  distribute  his  products  to  the  place  where 
there  is  the  best  demand  for  them.  This  increases  the  price 
to  the  producer.  It  helps  the  distributor  because  tit  means  a 
more  widespread  and  even  distribution  of  his  products.  And 
it  helps  the  consumer  because  it  means  that  the  products  are  at 
hand  to  meet  his  needs. 

How  may  a  farmer  know  his  markets?  The  daily  newspaper 
is  a  fair  source  of  information  although  usually  a  little  late. 
Reading  the  paper  regularly  should  give  pretty  good  information 
regarding  markets.  Then  again  The  Market  Reporter  is  a  fine 
source  from  which  to  gather  information  regarding  prices  on 
live  stock.  This  is  an  impartial  report  dispatched  in  a  no- word 
newsletter  to  all  of  the  important  newspapers  throughout  the 
United  States.  The  Government  sends  out  daily  reports  on  the 
fresh  meat  supply  in  the  leading  markets,  and  the  live  stock  ship- 
ments, with  their  sources  and  their  destinations  and  monthly 
reports  of  the  supply  of  meats  in  storage  by  the  large  packers. 
Besides  this  the  live  stock  movements  in  grazing  and  feeding 
sections  are  reported.  All  of  these  services  by  the  Government 
are  very  valuable  in  keeping  people  informed  regarding  their 
live  stock  markets.  Chicago  is  the  largest  live  stock  market 
in  the  world,  and  the  live  stock  reports  from  Chicago  are  dis- 
patched over  the  corn  belt  states  in  a  very  short  time.  The 
nine  leading  live  stock  markets  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
are:  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  St.  Louis,  St.  Joseph, 
Sioux  City,  St.  Paul,  Indianapolis,  and  Fort  Worth.  It  is  now 
possible  to  keep  in  pretty  close  touch  with  these  markets  through 
such  publications  as :  Chicago  Daily  Drovers  Journal,  Chicago ; 
Daily  Drovers  Telegram,  Kansas  City ;  Daily  Drovers  Journal- 
Stockman,  Omaha;  National  Live  Stock  Reporter,  St.  Louis 
(National  Stock  Yards,  111.) ;  Stock  Yards  Daily  Journal,  St. 


200  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

Joseph ;  Sioux  City  Live  Stock  Record,  Sioux  City ;  South  St. 
Paul  Daily  Reporter,  St.  Paul ;  Indianapolis  Daily  Live  Stock 
Journal,  Indianapolis;  Fort  Worth  Daily  Live  Stock  Reporter, 
Fort  Worth. 

The  U.  S.  Yearbook  of  Agriculture  is  a  good  source  from  which 
to  gain  information  regarding  the  number  of  live  stock  in  each 
state  and  the  country  as  a  whole.  This  information  is  valuable 
in  getting  an  idea  of  the  supply  of  the  entire  country.  This  may 
indicate  to  a  farmer  whether  or  not  it  will  be  advisable  to  enter 
into  a  certain  type  of  live  stock  production. 

An  international  report,  sent  out  quarterly,  for  illustration, 
and  reporting  the  live  stock  situation  in  all  the  principal  live 
stock  producing  countries,  would  do  much  in  stabilizing  live 
stock  production  and  live  stock  prices. 

It  pays  to  know  where  the  need  is.  This  is  the  chief  func- 
tion of  agricultural  market  information.  Its  purpose  is  to  regu- 
late the  flow  of  farm  products  to  meet  the  demand.  Often  one 
town  is  overstocked  and  another  one  understocked.  A  Maryland 
fanner  who  had  always  marketed  his  potatoes  in  Baltimore 
found  that  Baltimore  was  overstocked  and  Philadelphia  had  few 
or  no  potatoes.  He  shipped  his  potatoes  to  Philadelphia  and 
made  $250  by  so  doing.  At  other  times  the  price  on  potatoes 
may  be  just  the  reverse  in  these  two  cities.  A  knowledge  of 
markets  will  help  in  the  proper  distribution  of  commodities. 
An  understocked  market  in  one  place  and  an  overstocked  market 
somewhere  else  is  hardly  conducive  to  the  best  economic  and 
financial  welfare  of  the  nation,  and  with  abundant  supplies  there 
is  no  good  reason  why  such  a  condition  should  exist. 

2.  Know  the  market  classes  and  grades  of  live  stock.  A 
knowledge  of  the  market  classes  and  grades  of  live  stock  helps 
much  in  marketing  live  stock.  Corn,  wheat,  and  oats  are  well 
classified  and  the  market  grades  are  fairly  well  understood  by  the 


MARKETING  LIVE   STOCK 


201 


farmers.  This  is  true  because  farmers  handle  and  sell  grains  more 
commonly  than  they  do  live  stock.  But  live  stock,  too,  is  fairly 
well  classified  and  graded  by  the  markets  of  the  United  States. 

Where  buyer  and  seller  cannot  agree  as  to  a  market  class 
or  grade,  it  is  well  that  some  authoritative  and  competent  person 
be  referred  to  in  order  to  avoid  trouble  and  controversy.  That 
the  student  may  know  the  usual  classifications  we  shall  give  the 
market  classes  and  grades  of  live  stock  and  live  stock  products. 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  HORSES  AND  MULES 


SUBCLASSES 

HEIGHT 

WEIGHT 

Hands 

Pounds 

Light  draft 

Tf3        TAl 

i6oo~  1  7  ^o 

j  4        •'-*"'  2 

Draft  horses 

Heavy  draft    

16       17^ 

1750-2200 

Loggers 

ifi.3-      iji 

I  700—2200 

Farm  chunks  

15  ,   is* 

1200-1400 

Chunks 

Southern  chunks      .     .     . 

15      isi 

800-1250 

,  Eastern  chunks    .... 

15       16 

1300-1350 

Expressers  . 

i  $—     16- 

I3?O—  I  tJOO 

Wagon  horses 

Delivery  horses    .... 
Artillery  horses    .... 

15       16 
*5i     l6 

1100-1400 
1050-1200 

Fire  horses      

15       i7l 

1200-1700 

<  Coach    

I  CJL         1  6— 

1100—1250 

Carriage  horses 

Park  horses     

15      i5i 

1000-1150 

Cab   

15!     16^ 

1050-1200 

Runabout 

14  3      i<ri 

900—1050 

Road  horses 

Roadster 

iT-4           O2 
I  ^           l6 

QOO—  I  I  ^O 

\-J\J\J       J.  X  ^\J 

Five-gaited      

15       16 

900-1200 

Saddle  horses 

Three  -gai  ted   
Cavalry  horses     .... 

i4f     16 
J5       J5i 

900-1200 
950-1100 

Polo  ponies 

14.         14.- 

850—1000 

Mining  mules      .... 

12          l6 

600-1350 

Cotton  mules       .... 

13!       15^ 

750-1100 

Sugar  mules    

16       17 

1150-1300 

Farm  mules     

IS*     16 

900-1250 

Draft  mules    

16       17* 

1200-1600 

202 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


Each  subclass  is  further  divided  into  the  following  grades : 
choice,  good,  medium,  common,  and  inferior.  A  horse  to  grade 
as  choice  must  approach  the  most  perfect  type,  must  show  finish, 
quality,  style,  and  action. 

Beef  cattle  on  the  Chicago  market  are  classified  as  follows : 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


CLASS 

GRADES 

i.   Beef  cattle      .     .     . 
2.   Butcher  stock      .     . 
3.   Cutters  and  canners 
4.   Feeders  

Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common,  inferior 
Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common,  inferior 
Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common,  inferior 
Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common,  inferior 

5.   Veal  calves      .     .     . 

Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common,  inferior 

Prime  cattle  comprise  the  best  grade  of  any  class,  and  inferior 
ones  are  the  poorest  specimens  of  any  particular  class.  Cattle 
graded  as  prime  may  sell  for  8  cents  a  pound,  while  those  graded 
as  inferior  may  sell  for  3.5  cents  a  pound. 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP 


SUBCLASSES 

GRADES 

(  Lambs  .     . 

Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  and  culls 

Mutton  sheep 

Yearlings  . 

Prime,  choice,  good 

natives  and 

Wethers     . 

Prime,  choice,  good,  common 

Western  sheep 

Ewes    .     . 

Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  and  culls 

[Bucks  .     . 

Choice,  good,  common 

f  Lambs  .     . 

Fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  medium,  inferior 

Feeders 

Yearlings  . 

Choice,  good,  and  common 

Wethers    . 

Choice,  good,  medium,  and  common 

Ewes     .     . 

Choice,  good,  medium,  and  common 

r  Ewes    .     . 
Breeders           |Bucks 

Fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  and  common 
Good  and  common 

Hothouse 

Miscellaneous 

lambs    . 
Export 

Good  and  common 

sheep 

Good  and  common 

MARKETING  LIVE   STOCK  203 

Thus  there  are  the  following  grades  of  lambs :  prime,  choice, 
good,  medium,  and  culls.  They  vary  in  price  from  the  highest 
to  the  lowest.  Often  culls  are  almost  unsalable. 

The  market  classes  and  grades  of  wool  are  as  follows : 

Wool  is  classified  as  combing  or  clothing  wool.  Combing  wool 
is  longer  than  clothing  wool.  Clothing  wool  is  made  into  woolens, 
felts,  and  fabrics.  The  threads  are  not  parallel  and  in  fact  the 
more  they  run  in  every  direction  the  better  it  is,  while  the  threads 
in  combing  wool  must  be  parallel  in  the  fabric.  Combing  wool 
is  more  valuable,  bringing  3  to  6  cents  more  per  pound,  and  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finest  worsted  goods. 

Bulletin  206,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  gives  the  follow- 
ing interesting  facts  about  the  market  classes  and  grades  of  wool : 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  WOOL 


COMBING  WOOLS 


SOURCE 


Half  blood    .     .     . 
Three  eighths  blood 
Quarter  blood  .     . 
Low  quarter 
Braid 


Delaine  and  Merino 

Merino  and  Middle  wool  breeds 

Hampshire,  Shropshire,  Dorset,  and  Oxford 

Mixture 

Coarsest  combing  wool 


CLOTHING  WOOL 

XX,  wool  from  sheep  that  were  washed  before  shearing 

Half  blood 

Three  eighths  blood 

Quarter  blood 


The  last  three  terms  were  used  to  refer  to  wool  from  sheep  of 
half,  three  eighths,  and  one  quarter  blood  Merino;  but  these 
terms  do  not  apply  at  the  present  time. 


204 


LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


A  good  wool  must  be  true  to  structure ;  that  is,  it  must  not 
contain  wool  of  a  different  color  or  threads  that  lack  uniformity 
in  the  strength  of  the  fiber.  A  good  wool  must  be  strong  and  have 
no  weak  places  in  the  fiber.  Weak  places  in  the  fiber  are  caused 
by  sickness  and  underfeeding.  A  good  wool  must  be  uniform  in 
size  of  fiber.  If  the  fibers  are  not  the  same  size,  the  threads  will 
break  readily.  Good  wool  should  be  reasonably  clean  and  con- 
tain no  burs  or  other  matter  that  will  interfere  with  its  combing 
qualities.  Black  fleeces  are  not  wanted  because  they  do  not  take 
various  kinds  of  dye  colors  readily. 

There  is  some  variation  in  the  classification  of  hogs  at  dif- 
ferent markets.  These  classifications  may  be  had  by  securing  the 
live  stock  papers  from  the  leading  hog  markets.  For  our  infor- 
mation at  the  present  time  it  will  suffice  to  give  the  market 
classes  and  grades  of  hogs  of  the  Chicago  market. 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  HOGS 


CLASS 


GRADES 


Mixed  packing,  uneven  weights  averaging 
240  to  350  pounds 

Heavy  packing,  350  to  500  pounds      .     . 

Medium  and  mixed  butchers,  more  even 
weights  averaging  200  to  300  pounds  . 

Light  weight,  160  to  200  pounds    .      .     . 

Selected  packing  and  shipping,  1 50  to  300 
pounds  

Pigs,  70  to  1 20  pounds 

Feeding  pigs,  70  to  140  pounds       .     .     . 

Stags,  any  weights        

Boars,  any  weights 


Common,  medium,  good 
Rough,  fair,  good 


Common,  medium,  good,  choice 


Inferior,  fair,  good,  fancy 
Medium,  good,  choice 
Common,  fair,  good 
Common,  fair,  good 


Prune  hogs  show  the  highest  finish  and  bring  good  prices. 
Choice  hogs  are  not  quite  equal  to  prime  hogs,  and  good  hogs  are 


MARKETING  LIVE   STOCK 


205 


the  next  grade  below  choice.     Poor  and  rough  hogs  are  the  least 
desirable  grades. 

Poultry  and  eggs  are  also  classified.     Fowls  are  classified  by 
the  markets  as  follows  : 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  CHICKENS 


CLASS 

GRADES 

SIZE 

SUBGRADES 

(  Small 

12  OZ. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

Broilers       .     .     . 

Medium 

ij-4.ib. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

Heavy 

2Jr3  lb. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

Roasters 

Small 

4-6  Ib. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

Large 

6-10  lb. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

f  Small 

2^1b. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

Friers     .... 

j  Medium 

3lb. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

(  Large 

3^b. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

Capons  .... 

6-8  lb. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

TTpnc 

|  Heavy 

Over  3^  lb. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

riciis       .... 

1  Small 

Less  than  3!  lb. 

Firsts,  seconds,  culls 

Thus  in  the  class  of  broilers  there  are  three  grades;  namely, 
squab  broilers,  medium  broilers,  and  heavy  broilers.  Each 
grade  of  broilers  is  divided  into  three  subgrades,  firsts,  seconds, 
and  culls.  Broilers  derive  their  name  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  usually  cut  in  half  and  broiled.  This  class  is  usually  mar- 
keted at  six  to  twelve  weeks  of  age.  The  small  broiler  is  in 
greatest  demand.  Roasters  are  usually  marketed  when  three 
to  four  months  old. 

Eggs,  too,  are  classified.  In  the  first  place  they  are  classified 
as  brown  eggs  or  white  eggs.  All  white  eggs  should  be  pure 
white.  Brown  eggs  vary  in  shade,  but  whenever  a  sample  is 
selected  the  individual  eggs  of  the  sample  should  all  have  the 
same  shade  of  brown. 


206 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


I. 

Extras 

2. 

Firsts 

3- 

Seconds 

4- 

Thirds 

5- 

Culls 

I. 

No  heat  shown 

2. 

With  light  floats 

3- 

With  dark  floats 

U- 

With  blood  rings 

[I. 

Blind  checks 

2. 

Checks 

3- 

Dented 

4- 

Cracks 

5- 

Leakers 

i. 

Held  eggs 

2. 

Rots 

3. 

Having  odor 

I. 

Dirty 

2. 

Washed 

3- 

Smeared 

WEIGHT 

26  oz.  or  above 
24-26  ounces 
22-24  ounces 
20-22  ounces 
Less  than  20  ounces 


Eggs  are  classified  as  follows : 


As  to  size 


Summer  classification 


Breakage 


Classification  due  to 
age 

Classification  on  basis 
of  cleanliness 


If  eggs  are  absolutely  fresh,  clean,  and  uniform  in  shape  and 
color,  if  they  have  a  good  shell  texture,  and  if  they  weigh  26 
ounces  to  the  dozen  they  are  classified  as  extras ;  if  they  weigh  2  2 
ounces  and  come  up  to  the  other  standards  above  mentioned  they 
will  be  classified  as  seconds. 

A  brown  egg  is  no  better  than  a  white  egg ;  but  some  markets 
prefer  brown  eggs  while  other  markets  prefer  white  eggs. 

Fertile  eggs  deteriorate  as  rapidly  in  summer  as  does  milk, 
and  hence  the  statement  that  only  infertile  eggs  should  be  pro- 
duced for  human  consumption  cannot  be  overemphasized. 

3.  Know  the  principles  underlying  cooperative  marketing. 
There  are  at  least  six  benefits  derived  from  cooperative  marketing : 


MARKETING  LIVE  STOCK  207 

1.  Capital   invested   in   cooperative   organizations   makes   a 
saving  and  profit  for  the  farmer,  whereas  otherwise  these  profits 
go  to  other  investors  or  private  organizers. 

2.  A  community  which  markets  a  product  that  is  renowned 
both  in  quality  and  quantity  soon  establishes  a  reputation  for 
itself  which  induces  buyers  to  come  to  that  community  for  that 
commodity. 

3.  Through  cooperation  the  needs  of  the  community  can  be 
better  and  more  economically  supplied.    That  is,  feed,  machinery, 
coal,  twine,  etc.,  can  be  purchased  more  cheaply  in  large  quanti- 
ties than  in  small  quantities. 

4.  Cooperative  marketing  through  a  competent  leader  edu- 
cates its  membership  as  to  the  demands  of  the  market  and  as  to 
the  market  classes  and  grades  of  products  most  desired. 

5.  Cooperative  marketing  leads  to  a  greater  and  better  com- 
munity spirit  which  manifests  itself  in  better  social,  educational, 
and  religious  endeavors. 

6.  Cooperative  marketing  results  in  greater  net  returns  to 
the  farmer  for  he  receives  the  actual  market  price  for  his  stock 
less  the  cost  of  marketing .     The  purpose  of  cooperative  marketing 
is  for  savings,  not  for  profits. 

Factors  essential  in  cooperative  marketing.  —  There  are  some 
factors  which  are  very  helpful  and  almost  fundamentally  essen- 
tial to  success  in  cooperative  marketing  organizations.  Some 
of  the  more  important  ones  will  be  briefly  discussed : 

i.  The  production  of  a  well-classified,  high  quality  product 
is  one  of  the  essentials  to  success  in  a  cooperative  organization. 
To  illustrate,  the  Danish  farmers  market  their  hogs  in  a  coopera- 
tive way.  They  use  for  the  most  part  one  breed  of  hogs ;  namely, 
the  large  Yorkshire  hog,  which  is  a  white  hog  and  dresses  out  a 
beautiful  white  carcass.  The  Danish  farmers  have  an  agree- 
ment to  feed  their  hogs  in  a  definite,  well-understood  way,  and 


208  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

market  them  when  they  weigh  from  175  to  225  pounds  on  foot. 
This  insures  a  uniform  quality  product.  The  trade-mark, 
"  Wiltshire  Sides,"  a  name  given  to  the  entire  half  of  the  hog 
produced  by  the  Danish  farmers,  stands  for  quality  throughout 
the  hog  markets  of  the  world,  but  the  product  is  especially  well 
known  in  England.  The  production,  killing,  curing,  and  market- 
ing of  the  Wiltshire  Sides  by  the  Danish  farmers  is  under  a  strict 
cooperative  organization. 

2.  A  real  spirit  of  cooperation  is  essential  to  success  in  a  co- 
operative marketing  organization.     Farmers  who  really  cooperate 
will  agree  with  their  cooperating  friends  on  what  kind  of  prod- 
uct to  produce  and  when  to  produce  it.     They  will  stand  by 
the  organization  when  it  is  flourishing  and  will  not  forsake  it 
when  it  is  having  a  little  trouble.     Just  as  an  individual  will 
have  his  ups  and  downs,  so  will  a  group  also  have  its  ups  and 
downs  in  marketing  its  products.     Even  a  State  or  National 
Government,  which  never  attempts  to  make  money  but  does 
attempt  to  save  money,  does  not  always  flourish  financially. 
Therefore,    a   cooperative   marketing   concern   should   not   be 
expected  to  solve  all  the  difficulties  of  marketing  because  this 
high  result  has  never  been  attained  by  either  a  private  or  a  group 
organization. 

3.  An  efficient  manager  is  absolutely  essential  in  a  coopera- 
tive marketing  organization.     He  must  be  a  man  of  experience 
and  of  the  utmost  honesty  and  must  possess  the  qualities  of 
leadership.     An  efficient  manager  is  worth  a  good  salary  and 
it  is  here  that  a  high  salary  results  in  savings  ordinarily. 

4.  A  simple  system  of  bookkeeping  is  essential  also  to  success. 
There  is  an  accounting  system  put  out  by  the  Bureau  of  Markets, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.     This  standard  system 
of  accounting  is  widely  used  and  is  probably  the  best  system  in 
use.     Books  should  be  audited  by  an  expert  accountant  once  a 


MARKETING  LIVE   STOCK  209 

year.     This  not  only  authenticates  the  books  of  the  manager 
but  begets  confidence  in  the  farmer  cooperators. 

5.  A  live  board  of  directors  will  aid  much  in  directing  the 
affairs  of  the  organization.     This  body  with  the  manager  really 
establishes  the  policy  of  the  organization. 

6.  Size  of  business  is  an  important  factor  in  determining 
whether  or  not  a  cooperative  organization  can  live.     A  large 
association  insures  more  frequent  shipments,  better  service,  and 
a  competent  manager.     An  association  which   ships  at  least 
1 50  to  200  carloads  a  year  can  render  good  service  and  can  usually 
secure  a  capable  manager.     Some  associations  are  so  small  that 
they  cannot  render  good  service,  and  they  ship  so  infrequently 
that  the  farmers  are  not  accommodated.     No  one  questions  the 
service  that  can  be  rendered  by  cooperative  marketing  associa- 
tions, —  but  a  cooperative  marketing  association  will  surely 
fail  under  ordinary  conditions  unless  a  fairly  large-sized  business 
can  be  depended  upon. 

The  Rochdale  Pioneer  Plan  which  has  proved  to  be  a  good 
system  for  cooperative  organizations  sets  forth  four  principles 
which  may  be  well  incorporated  as  underlying  principles  in 
the  management  of  the  organization.  These  principles  are: 
(i)  one  man,  one  vote;  (2)  the  shares  should  be  limited; 
(3)  dividends  and  profits  should  be  distributed  on  the  basis  of 
patronage;  and  (4)  speculation  is  undesirable  and  almost  in- 
variably leads  to  ruin. 

Summary.  —  Much  unfinished  live  stock  is  marketed  by  the 
farmers  of  the  United  States.  This  results  in  losses  to  the  farmer, 
the  middleman,  and  the  consumer.  A  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  market  classes  and  grades  of  live  stock,  the  preparation 
of  live  stock  for  a  specific  class,  and  finishing  the  live  stock  so 
that  it  is  classified  as  prime  or  choice  will  do  much  to  stabilize 
prices.  Besides  this,  a  study  of  the  markets  and  a  study  of  the 


210  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

supply  and  demand  in  different  localities  will  do  much  in  aiding 
farmers  to  distribute  their  products  and  thus  prevent  radical 
fluctuations  in  prices.  Cooperative  marketing  of  live  stock  is 
becoming  a  common  practice  and  is  in  many  instances  saving 
money  for  the  farmers.  Efficient  marketing  of  live  stock  is  of 
mutual  interest  to  producer  and  consumer  and  the  services  now 
being  rendered  by  the  Government  in  gathering  and  impartially 
distributing  market  news  regarding  live  stock  are  appreciated  by 
all  who  know  of  its  work. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  From  a  study  of  your  home  paper  learn  the  market  classes  of  horses, 
beef  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  the  prices  of  each  classification  and  grade. 

2.  If  eggs  weighing  26  oz.  are  worth  30  cents  per  dozen,  what  is  a  dozen 
worth  which  weighs  22  oz.?     20  oz.? 

3.  If  there  is  a  buyer  of  live  stock  in  your  community,  have  him  ex- 
plain market  classes  and  grades  of  live  stock,  live  stock  markets,  and  why 
prices  on  live  stock  vary  so  much. 

4.  Bring  to  school  a  dozen  eggs  and  judge  them  according  to  the  score 
card  found  at  the  close  of  the  chapter  on  poultry. 


PART   TWO 
FARM   MECHANICS   AND    FARM    MANAGEMENT 


CHAPTER  XI 
USE  OF  CONCRETE 

Definitions.  —  Concrete  is  the  product  resulting  from  a  suitable 
mixture  of  cement,  sand,  pebbles,  and  water,  which  has  been  per- 
mitted to  harden  under  favorable  conditions.  Concrete  is  an 
artificially  manufactured  stone.  A  sidewalk  made  of  cement, 
sand,  pebbles,  and  water  properly  united  is  called  a  concrete 
sidewalk. 

Cement  is  an  adhesive  substance  used  for  uniting  bodies  to 
each  other.  In  connection  with  our  discussion  it  means  a  cal- 
cined mixture  which  will  harden  under  water  and  which  is  used 
for  making  mortar.  Mortar  is  a  mixture  of  cement,  sand,  and 
water. 

History  of  cement.  —  Cements  of  one  kind  or  another  have 
been  used  since  prehistoric  tunes.  Natural  cement  in  limited 
quantities  was  used  in  the  United  States  for  many  years.  From 
1818  to  1830  only  300,000  barrels  were  used.  The  use  of  natural 
cement  came  to  its  climax  in  1899  when  10,000,000  barrels  were 
produced. 

Artificial  cement  was  invented  in  1824  by  Joseph  Aspdin,  an 
Englishman.  He  called  his  product  "  Portland  Cement "  be- 
cause of  its  close  resemblance  to  the  limestone  secured  from  the 
Portland  Quarries  on  the  English  Channel.  The  manufacture 
of  artificial  Portland  cement  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  by  David  Say  lor  of  Pennsylvania  in  1875.  At  first  the 
production  and  use  of  Portland  cement  were  limited.  This 
was  due  to  the  high  cost  of  production. 

213 


214  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

In  the  years  1912, 1913,  1914,  the  amount  of  cement  produced 
in  the  United  States  was  85,925,651  barrels,  89,541,348  barrels, 
and  87,257,552  barrels  respectively.  In  1914,  Pennsylvania 
produced  26,570,151  barrels;  and  Indiana  produced  9,595,923 
barrels.  Other  states  in  order  of  the  production  of  cement  were  : 
New  York,  Illinois,  California,  Missouri,  Michigan,  Iowa,  New 
Jersey,  Kansas,  Texas,  Washington,  Ohio,  and  Utah.  A  sack 
of  cement  contains  94  pounds,  and  4  sacks,  or  376  pounds  of 
cement,  make  a  barrel.  A  sack  of  cement  is  counted  the  equiva- 
lent of  one  cubic  foot. 

Portland  cement  is  used  on  farms  in  the  construction  of  walks, 
foundations,  silos,  fence  posts,  troughs,  driveways,  and  tiling. 
Railroads  and  the  State  and  National  Governments  are  extensive 
users  of  cement. 

Some  things  to  avoid  in  the  making  of  concrete.  —  Defec- 
tive and  unsatisfactory  concrete  may  be  traced  to  one  or  more 
of  the  following  causes  : 

1.  Use  of  an  improper  amount  of  water  in  mixing,  —  generally 
too  much  water  is  used. 

2.  Use  of  dirty  sand  and  gravel.     Clay,  loam,  or  other  foreign 
matter  will  not  permit  proper  cementation.     It  should  not  be 
expected  that  dirt  or  mud  would  make  a  good  concrete. 

3.  Use  of  dirty  water,  or  water  containing  injurious  chemicals. 

4.  Use  of  poor  aggregates ;  that  is,  sand  and  gravel  not  having 
the  required  physical  properties.     Soft  soapstones,  shale,  and 
slate  do  not  have  the  toughness  to  make  good  concrete. 

5.  Use  of  insufficient  quantity  of  cement. 

6.  Insufficient  mixing. 

7.  Permitting   the  concrete  to  dry  out  too  quickly.     This 
prevents  the  concrete  from  hardening  and  curing  properly. 

Essentials  for  success  in  making  concrete  durable.  — If 
concrete  is  to  be  durable  and  permanent  it  must  be  properly 


USE  OF   CONCRETE 


215 


made.     The  materials,  their  proportion,  mixing,  and  curing  are 
all  important  in  getting  a  good  concrete. 

i.  The  materials  used  must  possess  certain  properties  if  a 
durable  concrete  is  expected.  Standard  specifications  require 
that  78  per  cent  of  the  cement  shall  pass  a  No.  200  sieve ;  that 
is,  one  having  200  meshes  to  the  linear  inch.  Cement  is  manu- 
factured at  the  present  under  such  exacting  conditions  that  practi- 
cally all  cement  is  of  the  best  quality.  Seldom  is  cement  found 
that  has  not  good  binding  qualities.  The  sand  used  in  making 
cement  should  not  be  too  fine.  Coarse,  sharp  sand  makes  much 
better  concrete.  Great  care  should  also  be  used  in  selecting  the 

r—  12"- 


12' 


n 


CEMENT 


SAND  STONE  CONCRETE 

FIG.  90.  —  Amount  of  aggregates  to  use  in  making  concrete. 


stone  or  gravel.  It  should  be  hard  and  solid,  and  be  free 
from  clay  or  dirt,  for  such  foreign  material  prevents  cemen- 
tation or  binding.  For  thin  walls  use  i  to  i  inch  stone ;  and 
for  thick  walls  or  structures,  stones  measuring  i  to  i\  inches  in 
diameter. 

2.  The  proportion  of  the  aggregates  used  in  making  concrete 
varies  to  a  considerable  extent.  That  mixture  in  which  all 
spaces,  called  voids,  between  the  gravel  and  sand  are  filled  with 
cement  is  the  ideal  mixture.  Figure  90  illustrates  the  amount 
of  each  aggregate  to  be  used  in  making  concrete. 

In  making  various  things  the  following  proportions  of  aggre- 
gates may  be  used : 


2i6  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

PROPORTION  OF  AGGREGATES  IN  MAKING  CONCRETE  THINGS 


CEMENT 

SAND 

GRAVEL 

For  sidewalks,  gutters,  etc.  .     .     . 

Parts 

I 

Parts 
2f 

Parts 
5 

For   silos,   tanks,    cisterns,    fence 
posts,  etc  

I 

2k 

A 

For  finishing  inside  walls  of  water 
tanks,  silos,  etc  

I 

l| 

0 

Concrete  blocks  and  tiles,  etc.  .     . 

I 

3 

0 

A  i :  2 :  4  mixture  means  a  mixture  containing  one  part  of 
cement,  two  parts  of  sand,  and  four  parts  of  stone  or  gravel.  A 
sack  of  cement  occupies  one  cubic  foot  of  space.  If  a  i :  2 :  4 
mixture  is  desired,  use  one  sack  of  cement,  two  cubic  feet  of  sand, 
and  four  cubic  feet  of  stone  or  gravel.  Such  a  mixture  re- 
quires 5  to  6  gallons  of  water.  It  is,  of  course,  evident  that  the 
aggregates  must  be  well  mixed  in  order  to  make  a  durable 
concrete. 

Amount  of  aggregates  to  use  to  make  a  cubic  yard  of  con- 
crete. —  To  find  the  amount  of  aggregates  to  use  in  concrete 
construction,  first  find  the  cubical  content  of  the  walk,  wall, 
or  thing  which  is  to  be  constructed.  Determine  the  dimensions 
of  the  thing  that  is  to  be  built  in  terms  of  cubic  yards.  Then 
use  the  following  table  to  determine  the  amount  of  aggregates 
to  use  in  its  construction.  But  proper  proportion  of  the  ma- 
terials is  no  more  important  than  the  proper  preparation  of  them 
by  thorough  mixing.  One  cubic  yard  of  rammed  concrete  will 
require  the  following : 


USE  OF   CONCRETE 


217 


AGGREGATES  TO  MAKE  CUBIC  YARD  OF  RAMMED  CONCRETE,  USING  ONE 
INCH  STONE  AND  UNDER 


MIXTURE 

BBL.  OF  CEMENT 

CUBIC  YARDS  OF  SAND 

CUBIC  YARDS  OF  STONE 

i     13  :  3 

1.85 

0.42 

0.84 

12:4 

1.46 

0.44 

0.89 

i     2|  14 

i-35 

0.52 

0.82 

I       2|    14^ 

1.27 

0.48 

0.87 

12:5 

1.27 

0-39 

0.97 

i     2!  15 

1.19 

0.46 

0.91 

i     3     :S 

i.  ii 

0.51 

0.85 

i     3^:5^ 

1  .00 

0.53 

0.84 

i     3     :6 

I.OI 

0.46 

0.92 

i     3l  =6 

0-95 

0.50 

0.87 

13:7 

0.91 

0.42 

0.97 

i     3^  :  7 

0.87 

0.47 

0-93 

14:7 

0.83 

0.51 

0.89 

14:7! 

0.80 

0.49 

0.91 

14:8 

0.77 

0.47 

0-93 

Thus  to  make  one  cubic  yard  of  a  i :  2  :  4  mixture  use  i  .46 
barrels  of  cement,  or  6  sacks,  0.44  cubic  yard  of  sand,  and  0.89 
cubic  yard  of  stone,  using  one  inch  stone  and  under.  A  barrel 
of  cement  contains  3.8  cubic  feet  of  cement,  and  a  cubic  foot  of 
cement  weighs  94  pounds. 

Mixing  the  concrete.  —  After  the  dry  ingredients  are  measured 
out  according  to  definite  proportions  they  are  poured  together 
on  a  platform  and  mixed  until  the  entire  mass  has  one  uniform 
color.  Thorough  mixing  can  hardly  be  overemphasized. 

After  the  dry  ingredients  are  thoroughly  mixed,  water  is  added. 
For  thin  walls  and  thin  sections  more  water  is  added  to  the  con- 
crete, and  it  is  called  a  very  wet  mixture.  For  building  founda- 
tions and  floors  a  medium  mixture  is  used.  The  concrete  is 
just  wet  enough  to  make  a  jelly  like  paste.  Dry  mixtures  are 


218 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


used  for  walls  where  the  concrete  is  desired  to  set  as  quickly  as 
possible.  The  difference  between  the  mixtures  is  that  the  dry 
mixtures  will  set  more  quickly  and  are  more  difficult  to  handle. 
When  the  concrete  sets,  the  results  will  be  identical. 

The  tools  shown  in  Figure  92  are  used  in  mixing  concrete. 

Forms  for  concrete.  —  The  design,  arrangement,  and  construc- 
tion of  the  forms  are  often  as  important  as  the  placing  of  the 
concrete.  Contrary  to  a  prevalent  opinion,  dry  wood  is  not  well 


FIG.  91.  —  Thorough  mixing  of  the  aggregates  is  essential  in  making  good  concrete. 

suited  for  forms,  because  it  absorbs  too  much  moisture  from  the 
concrete.  Green  oak,  pine,  spruce,  or  fir  is  best  suited  for  forms, 
for  the  expansion  and  shrinkage  of  these  woods  is  uniform,  and 
they  do  not  absorb  very  much  moisture.  Forms  must  be  made 
strong  enough  so  that  they  will  not  bulge  out;  but  the  use  of 
nails  in  forms  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  for  in  pulling 
nails  the  concrete  is  often  cracked.  Forms  are  sometimes  re- 
moved too  soon.  Where  there  is  little  pressure  against  the  forms, 
they  may  be  removed  in  36  to  48  hours.  Where  wet  mixtures 
are  used  forms  should  remain  in  place  50  to  60  hours. 


USE  OF   CONCRETE 


219 


FIG.  92.  —  Tools  used  in  mixing  concrete. 

Placing  the  concrete.  —  No  time  should  elapse  between  the 
mixing  and  the  placing.  An  important  thing  to  remember  is 
that  the  materials  should  not  separate  in  placing.  After  the 


22O 


LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


concrete  is  put  into  the  form  it  should  be  tamped  lightly  until 
the  water  shows  on  top,  and  no  stones  are  left  uncovered  by 
mortar.  The  sides  of  the  concrete  should  be  spaded,  for  this 

will  press  the  coarser  materials  to- 
ward the  inner  part  of  the  wall 
and  leave  the  face  of  the  wall  smooth. 
This  method  of  spading  the  concrete 
wall  is  shown  in  the  figure. 

Reenforcement  of  concrete. — Con- 
crete is  strong  and  offers  much  re- 
sistance under  compression.  But  its 
tensile  strength  is  very  small.  Since 
iron  and  steel  are  strong  in  tensile 
strength  they  are  much  used  to  re- 
enforce  concrete.  A  concrete  bar 
will  carry  very  little  weight,  but 
when  it  is  reenforced  with  rods, 
it  will  carry  a  fairly  large  load. 

The  kind  of  material  to  use  in 
reenforcing  concrete  consists  of  steel 
bars  and  wire.  Round  bars  three 
sixteenths  or  one  fourth  inch  in 
diameter  are  used  most  on  the  farm. 
The  ordinary  wire  fencing  is  well 
suited  for  reenforcing.  The  stock  of  rods  carried  by  the  black- 
smith are  too  soft  and  do  not  have  the  tensile  strength 
necessary  for  reinforcement  purposes.  Reenforcing  material 
may  now  be  had  from  companies  who  make  it  their  specialty 
to  manufacture  it.  Ungalvanized  steel  is  as  good  as  galvanized, 
for  when  steel  is  incased  in  concrete  it  will  not  rust. 

The  strength  that  reenforced  concrete  will  have  depends  upon 
a  number  of  things.     The  amount  of  steel  used  ordinarily  is  in 


FIG.  93.  —  "Spading"  of  concrete  in 
wall  forms  forces  the  coarse  aggre- 
gates back  from  the  face  and  pro- 
duces a  smooth  surface  on  the 
finished  wall. 


USE  OF  CONCRETE 


221 


total  area  of  cross  section  ranging  from  i  to  ii  per  cent  of  the 
total  cross  section  area  of  the  concrete  beam  or  slab  in  which  it 
is  incased. 

Reenforcing  materials  are  used  in  making  fence  posts,  bridges, 
foundations,  walls,  columns,  silos,  beams,  and  other  kinds  of 
construction  that  have  to  carry  tension  weight. 


•NEUTRAL  AXIS 


/\ 


FIG.  94.  —  The  upper  two  bars  show  how  a  single  beam  breaks.    The  lower  one  shows 
where  the  reenforcement  may  be  placed. 

Waterproofing.  —  Concrete  may  be  made  water-tight.  This 
may  be  done  by  the  use  of  a  water-tight  mixture  made  of  one  part 
of  cement,  two  of  sand,  and  three  of  gravel.  Lean  mixtures  of 
concrete  will  not  hold  water,  because  the  pore  space  is  too  open. 
Open,  porous  concrete  will  absorb  water  just  like  a  sponge. 
Therefore,  the  mixture  must  be  made  so  that  there  are  no  voids 
or  openings  in  the  concrete.  Felt,  tar  paper,  and  asphalt-coated 
paper  may  be  used  in  some  instances  to  make  the  concrete  water- 
proof. But  in  the  construction  of  troughs,  tanks,  and  cisterns 
it  is  recommended  that  the  mixture  of  the  mortar  be  so  made 


222  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

that  all  voids  are  closed.  A  final  coating  of  cement  alone  will 
help  in  making  the  article  waterproof. 

Oil  is  sometimes  mixed  with  the  concrete  to  make  it  water- 
proof. The  weight  of  oil  used  should  not  exceed  5  per  cent  of 
the  weight  of  the  cement  used.  A  bag  of  cement  weighs  94 
pounds.  Therefore,  for  each  bag  of  cement  use  4.7  pounds 
or  about  2\  quarts  of  oil.  In  mixing  use  the  following  method : 
First  mix  thoroughly  the  sand  and  cement  until  they  appear 
to  be  of  a  uniform  color.  Then  add  the  water  and  mix  with  the 
cement.  Finally  add  the  oil  and  continue  the  mixing  for  double 
the  usual  time.  Basement  floors,  and  cellar  walls  may  be  easily 
waterproofed  by  this  method.  Heavy,  crude  oil,  containing  no 
fatty  or  vegetable  matter,  is  recommended  for  this  use. 

Curing  process.  —  Curing  the  concrete  is  an  important  pro- 
cess in  making  the  concrete  satisfactory.  Attention  should  be 
given  to  the  following  points :  i .  During  warm  weather  con- 
crete should  be  prevented  from  getting  too  warm  and  dry.  Con- 
crete hardens  within  a  few  hours,  but  its  greatest  strength 
continues  to  develop  for  28  days.  Hardening  of  concrete  is  a 
chemical  process  and  not  a  drying  process.  In  a  test  made  in  a 
laboratory,  concrete  allowed  to  air-dry  for  120  days  had  a  com- 
pression strength  of  1800  pounds  per  square  inch;  but  concrete 
kept  in  a  moist  sand  for  the  same  length  of  time  had  a  compression 
strength  of  4500  pounds  per  square  inch.  Therefore,  protect 
the  concrete  from  drying  out  rapidly  by  watering  or  covering 
with  a  canvas  or  sand,  and  from  the  sun  by  covering  with  straw 
for  at  least  ten  days.  Generally  speaking  the  protective  meas- 
ures above  described  are  not  needed  when  the  temperature  is  near 
50°  Fahrenheit,  for  the  concrete  does  not  ordinarily  dry  out  so 
rapidly  under  such  conditions  nor  does  it  harden  so  readily. 

2.  Concrete  may  be  laid  in  cold  weather  provided  the  sand, 
gravel,  and  water  used  are  heated  to  a  temperature  of  at  least 


USE  OF  CONCRETE  223 

170°  Fahrenheit.  The  cement  need  not  be  heated  for  it  makes 
up  only  a  small  part  of  the  bulk.  Warmth  given  the  concrete 
may  be  retained,  provided  the  concrete  is  protected  as  soon  as 
it  is  placed.  Walks  and  underground  walls  may  be  protected 
from  the  cold  by  use  of  hay  or  straw.  Interior  walls  may  be 
kept  warm  with  a  stove.  But  the  heat  in  the  room  should  not  run 
very  high,  for  rapid  drying  of  the  concrete  reduces  its  quality. 
Concrete  work  should  not  be  done  when  the  temperature  is 
below  35°  Fahrenheit. 

Cement  storage.  —  All  standard  Portland  cement,  when  it 
leaves  the  mine,  is  of  high  quality  because  the  methods  of  manu- 
facture are  so  correct  that  quality  can  be  perfectly  controlled. 
But  cement  has  a  great  affinity  for  water,  and  if  exposed  to  mois- 
ture will  absorb  it  readily ;  whereupon  chemical  action  takes 
place.  For  this  reason,  care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  it  per- 
fectly dry  until  it  enters  the  mass  where  it  is  to  be  used.  Never 
store  cement  on  the  ground  or  in  places  where  it  will  absorb 
moisture,  —  as  only  a  little  moisture  will  cause  it  to  partially,  if 
not  completely,  harden  and  destroy  its  value  as  bonding  material. 

Summary.  —  The  use  of  cement  on  farms  is  constantly  in- 
creasing, and  therefore  it  is  important  to  learn  something  about 
its  use.  Poor  results  with  concrete  are  usually  due  to  poor 
mixing,  improper  proportioning,  dirty  material,  or  the  use  of 
too  little  cement.  The  tensile  strength  of  concrete  is  small, 
and  therefore  it  must  be  reenforced  in  a  great  many  instances. 
Proper  proportioning,  mixing,  placing,  and  curing  are  important 
in  the  production  of  a  good  quality,  satisfactory  concrete. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES   AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

i.  Make  a  survey  of  your  school  district,  listing  the  concrete  found, 
such  as  silos,  posts,  troughs,  cistern  tops,  walks,  porches,  foundations, 
floors,  etc.  State  dimensions  of  each  and  the  approximate  cost. 


224  LIVE   STOCK   AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

2.  Get  some  cement,  sand,  and  gravel,  and  make  little  concrete  beams 
in  a  form  with  different  proportions  of  the   aggregates,  such  as  i  12  14; 
i  :  2\  :  5  ;    1:3;   etc.    Make  the  beams  i  inch  X  i  inch  X  8  inches.    After 
curing  for  some  time,  —  say  24,  48,  96  hours,  and  some  for  28  days,  —  place 
ends  of  beams  on  rods  or  blocks  of  wood,  tie  a  balance  to  the  beam,  and 
then  weigh  it  down  by  piling  on  material  until  the  beam  breaks.     Record 
results. 

3.  Make   reenforced   beams  with  concrete  of  the   same   size  as  those 
suggested  in  Exercise  2.     Use  baling  wire  or  a  wire  which  is  a  little  heavier. 
Try  the  experiment  by  placing  wire  in  different  ways  in  the  concrete.     In 
some  beams  place  the  wire  straight;    in  others  place  the  wire  curved  up- 
ward, and  in  others  downward.     Test  these  bsams  as  in  the  preceding 
exercise. 

4.  Determine  the  cost  of  making  a  concrete  walk  3  feet  wide,  50  feet 
long,  and  5  inches  thick.     Include  every  item  of  cost  of  production. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CONCRETE   STRUCTURES 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  concrete  structures.  —  The 

use  of  concrete  has  several  advantages :  (i)  Concrete  struc- 
tures are  fairly  permanent.  Rust,  worms,  and  fire  do  not  destroy 
concrete,  and  the  weather  does  not  affect  or  change  concrete 
to  any  great  extent.  (2)  The  initial  cost  of  concrete  is  not  much 
greater,  and  in  some  instances  is  even  less,  than  the  initial  cost 
of  other  building  materials.  On  many  farms  sand  and  gravel  are 
found  which,  if  cleaned,  will  make  good  building  material. 
(3)  Concrete  costs  less  for  repairs  than  do  other  materials  used  in 
construction.  Concrete  does  not  warp,  dry  out,  or  decay,  and 
concrete  does  not  need  to  be  painted.  (4)  Concrete  structures 
are  attractive  in  appearance.  Various  colors  and  shades  may 
be  used  in  beautifying  concrete.  (5)  Concrete  structures  are 
rat  and  mouse  proof.  This  is  very  desirable. 

The  use  of  concrete  has  a  few  disadvantages:  (i)  Buildings 
made  of  concrete  are  not  easily  moved,  and  it  is  desirable  in  many 
instances  that  small  buildings,  such  as  poultry  houses  and  hog 
houses,  be  movable.  (2)  When  the  ordinary  bank-run  sand  or 
gravel  is  used  in  concrete  constructions,  unsatisfactory  results 
may  be  expected.  This  is  not  really  a  disadvantage  of  the  use 
of  concrete,  but  a  fault  of  construction.  (3)  The  final  cost  of 
concrete  will  often  be  pretty  large,  if  an  inexperienced,  unskilled 
person  does  the  work.  Unless  all  operations  with  concrete  are 
properly  and  well  done,  unsatisfactory  results  are  sure  to  follow. 
This  probably  is  an  advantage  for  concrete  for  it  means  careful 

225 


226  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

work,  which  results  in  the  highest  efficiency.  With  these  state- 
ments we  will  proceed  to  discuss  some  typical  concrete  structures. 
It  is  believed  that  from  the  following  suggestions  other  ordinary 
structures  on  the  farm  may  be  satisfactorily  built  from  con- 
crete. 

Fence  posts.  —  Ekblaw,  in  his  book  entitled  "  Farm  Con- 
crete," says :  "  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  5,000,000,000 
fence  posts  in  the  United  States,  and  that  the  average  life  of 


FIG.  95.  —  Homemade  post  molds. 

wooden  fence  posts  is  about  five  years."  Posts  made  from  cedar, 
osage  orange,  locust,  and  mulberry,  of  course,  are  more  durable. 
Concrete  posts  have  the  advantage  of  being  reasonably  durable, 
and  permanency  and  durability  are  constantly  receiving  more 
attention.  The  rubbish  in  which  insects  harbor  along  fence 
lines  may  be  burned  where  concrete  posts  are  used  without  injury 
to  the  posts.  Concrete  posts,  when  once  set,  do  not  need  re- 
pair and  straightening  up  as  often  as  do  wooden  posts. 

In  making  concrete  posts  especial  attention  should  be  given 
to  (i)  forms,  (2)  proportions,  (3)  reenforcement,  and  (4)  curing. 

i .    Forms  may  be  made  from  either  wood  or  iron.     The  dimen- 


CONCRETE  STRUCTURES 


227 


sions  of  the  form  must  be  correct,  and  the  form  itself  strong 
enough  so  that  it  does  not  bulge.  The  preceding  figure  shows 
one  type  of  a  post  mold  or  form. 

The  ordinary  fence  post  is  7  feet  long,  at  least  5  inches  square 
at  the  bottom,  and  3  inches  square  at  the  top.  Of  course  posts 
vary  a  great  deal  in  shape  and  cross  section.  Posts  5  by  5  inches 
at  the  bottom  and  3  by  5  inches  at  the  top  are  of  good  shape. 
Such  a  post  should  be  placed  perpendicular  to  the  fence,  for  this 
gives  additional  strength  when  the  load  comes  from  either  side. 
The  cross  section  of  different  shaped  posts  and  the  placing  of 
reenforcement  are  shown  in  the  following  illustration. 


FIG.  96.  —  Cross  sections  of  different  shapes  of  posts. 

2.  The  proportion  of  aggregates  used  in  making  concrete 
posts  is  that  of  a  i  :  2  :  3  mixture.     Where  small  posts  are  made 
the  particles  used  should  not  be  more  than  ^  inch  in  diameter. 
In  the  construction  of  larger  posts,  larger  aggregates  may  be 
used. '  Thorough  mixing  of  the  aggregates  is,  of  course,  essential 
in  making  good  concrete. 

3.  Reenforcing  is  fundamental  in  making  fence  posts.     Con- 
crete is  strong  under  pressure,  but  fence  posts  must  have  bend- 


228  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

ing  strength.  For  this  reason  they  must  be  reenforced.  Some 
have  thought  that  a  gas  pipe  through  the  middle  of  a  concrete 
post  was  the  best  reenforcement,  but  laboratory  tests  show  that 
the  reenforcement  should  be  placed  close  to  the  four  corners  or 
edges  of  the  post.  After  the  concrete  has  been  laid  in  the  form 
to  the  depth  of  a  half  inch  the  reenforcing  material  should  be 
laid  in  the  concrete.  When  the  form  has  been  rilled  to  within 
a  half  inch  of  the  top,  reenforcing  material  should  again  be 
used. 

No.  5  rods,  which  are  one  fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  make 
about  the  best  reenforcement  for  concrete  posts.  In  large 
posts  and  in  end  posts  carrying  a  heavy  strain,  wire  or  rods 
one  fourth  inch  in  diameter  should  be  used.  The  ends  of  re- 
enforcing  rods  or  wires  are  bent  in  order  to  prevent  slipping. 
Since  fence  posts  break  quite  frequently  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  it  is  recommended  that  additional  reenforcement  be 
placed  at  the  base  of  posts,  extending  two  feet  below  and  above 
the  ground. 

4.  Concrete  posts  should  be  cured  about  60  hours  before  they 
are  moved,  and  sprinkled  several  times  during  this  period.  They 

then  should  be  stored  in  a  place 
where  they  are  protected  from 
sun,  wind,  and  frost. 

Attachments  to  the  posts  are 
best  made  by  a  wire  extending 
FIG.  97.  —  Attachment  of  fencing  to  post,    around  the  post  as  shown  in 

Figure  97. 

Concrete  foundations.  —  A  concrete  foundation  should  have 
carrying  capacity  and  should  be  water-tight.  Some  soils  have 
a  low  bearing  power,  while  others  resist  a  heavy  load.  Ekblaw 
quotes  Mr.  George  B.  Frances  in  giving  the  following  weights 
that  different  materials  will  carry  under  compression. 


CONCRETE  STRUCTURES  229 

COMPRESSION  LOADS  DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  WILL  CARRY  PER  SQUARE 

FOOT 


MATERIAL 

TONS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT  THESE  SUBSTANCES  WILL  CARRY 

Solid  rock     .     .     . 
Hardpan       .     .     . 
Gravel       .... 
Sand 

36 
8 

5 

4;           . 

Dry  clay       .     .     . 

Wet  clay       . 
Loam  

3 

2 

I 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  solid  rock  will  carry  36  tons  of  weight 
per  square  foot,  and  that  loam  will  carry  only  one  ton. 

In  making  the  form  for  a  concrete  wall  the  soil  is  often  used. 
This  may  be  done  provided  the  soil  is  compact,  and  does  not 
give  way. 

In  laying  out  the  work,  squaring  of  corners  may  be  done  by 
the  use  of  the  3,  4,  5  rule,  or  by  use  of  the 
square. 

The  wall  may  be  made  water-tight  by 
using  the  aggregates  in  their  proper  pro- 
portion. A  mixture  in  the  proportion  of 


1:2:3  will  afford  the  desired  resistance  to      FlG    Qg  _  Method     of 

the  passage  of  Water.      All  Walls  Should  be    squaring    corners.     Measure 

3  feet  along  one  side,  4  feet 
put  deep   enough   SO   that   they   are   below    along  the  other,  make  the 


the  frost  line.    Foundation  walls  for  barns 

should  be  at  least  2  feet  deep  and  i  foot 

wide ;   while  foundation  walls  for  residences  may  be  18  inches 

deep  and  1 2  inches  wide. 

Since  concrete  has  little  strength  to  carry  a  load  when  in  the 
form  of  a  beam,  it  is  evident  that  it  must  be  well  reenforced  when 


230 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


it  is  so  used.  But  in  case  the  pressure  is  not  very  great,  unre- 
enforced  concrete  may  be  used.  This  is  true  in  the  case  of  small 
basement  windows.  Where  the  soil  is  not  capable  of  carrying 
the  load,  its  carrying  ability  may  be  assisted  by  reenforcing  the 
foundation  walls.  Rods  placed  near  the  lower  edges  of  the  wall 
will  give  the  greatest  reenforcement.  When  large  structures 
are  built,  a  competent  builder  should  supervise  the  work. 

Floors,  pavements,  and  sidewalks.  —  Floors,  pavements, 
sidewalks,  and  especially  roads  should  be  built  on  a  firm,  unyield- 
ing base ;  they  should  be  built  so  that  water  will  not  soak  into 
the  concrete  and  stay  there,  because  if  it  does  the  concrete  is 
sure  to  be  broken  by  freezing.  The  foundations  upon  which 
concrete  is  laid  should  be  firm,  smooth,  and  unyielding  at  every 
point.  In  fact,  in  building  roads  it  is  well  to  make  the  roadbed  a 
year  before  the  concrete  is  put  on  it.  This  gives  the  fills  time 
to  settle,  and  thus  a  good  substantial  base  is  prepared  for  the 
concrete.  For  floors  and  walks  a  layer  of  chat,  cinders,  or  coarse 
gravel  is  often  placed  on  the  ground  as  a  base  for  the  cement. 
This  is  a  good  practice,  for  2  or  3  inches  of  this  material  will 
prevent  the  soil  water  from  coming  up  by  capillarity  into  the 
concrete  floor.  Good  drainage  is  essential  in  road  and  walk  con- 
struction. Therefore,  they  should  be  slightly  rounded.  Some 
information  regarding  the  construction  of  floors,  sidewalks,  and 
roads  is  given  in  the  following  table. 

PROPORTION  OF  AGGREGATES  TO  USE 


THICKNESS 

PROPORTION  OF  AGGREGATES 

MAXIMUM  SIZE 
OF  AGGREGATES 

Inches 

Inches 

Floors   .     . 

4-6 

I  :  2\  :  4 

zi 

Sidewalks  . 

4-5 

1:2:4 

ji 

Roads   .     . 

6-7 

1:2:4 

il 

CONCRETE   STRUCTURES 


231 


Walks  and  floors  should  be  finished  and  smoothed  at  the  top  by 
the  use  of  a  wood  float.  A  metal  trowel  should  be  used  sparingly, 
if  at  all,  because  its  use  brings  a  film  of  cement  to  the  surface 
which  lacks  wearirig  ability  and  which  often  develops  hair 
cracks. 

Concrete  may  be  used  for  making  feeding  floors  for  cattle, 
hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry.  Hogs  that  are  fed  either  in  a  very 
dusty  or  a  very  muddy  pen  show  little  gain. 


FIG.  QQ.  —  Concrete  feeding  floor  for  hogs  saves  feed,  may  be  easily  cleaned,  and  prevents 

sickness  among  hogs. 

Concrete  silos.  —  The  claim  is  sometimes  made  that  certain 
building  materials  improve  the  flavor,  feeding  value,  and  keeping 
qualities  of  silage.  This  is  entirely  false,  for  it  is  well  known  that 
the  essentials  of  a  good  silo  are : 

1.  It  must  be  air-tight. 

2.  It  must  be  water-tight. 

3.  It  should  be  smooth  inside. 


232 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


The  silage  absorbs  nothing  or  very  little  from  the  walls  of  the 
silo,  and,  therefore,  the  silo  itself  imparts  no  flavor  to  the  silage. 
Foods  and  feeds  are  preserved  by  canning,  drying,  salting,  pick- 
ling, cold  storage,  and  ensiling.  Bacteria  that  cause  decay  need 
heat,  moisture,  air,  and  food.  In  each  method  of  food  preserva- 
tion one  or  more  of  these  factors  of  bacterial  growth  must  be 
absent.  The  silo  excludes  the  air ;  otherwise,  the  silage  spoils. 

The  materials  used  in  silo  construction  are  wood,  concrete 
blocks,  brick,  monolithic  concrete,  glazed  tile,  and  sheet  metal. 
The  pit  silo  dug  in  the  ground  is  used  in  the  West.  No  material 
in  silo  construction  has  superiority  over  any  other  in  improving 
the  quality  of  the  silage.  Concrete  silos  are  fireproof,  they  are 
durable  when  set  on  a  good  foundation  and  properly  constructed, 
and  the  silage  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the  concrete. 

Corn  will  yield  silage  at  the  following  rates : 

30  bushels  corn 6  tons 

45  bushels  corn 9  tons 

60  bushels  corn 12  tons 

To  estimate  the  proper  dimensions  for  a  silo  the  following 
table  may  be  used. 


FIG.  100.  —  Construction  of  silo  floor  and  foundation. 


CONCRETE   STRUCTURES 

SILAGE-FEEDING  TABLE  FOR  182  DAYS 


233 


NUMBER  OF    Cows 

ESTIMATED  CAPACITY 

DIAMETER 

HEIGHT 

Tons 

Feet 

Feet 

7 

26 

10 

2O 

14 

51 

10 

30 

21 

73 

12 

32 

30 

109 

14 

34 

40 

143 

16 

34 

50 

181 

18 

34 

Concrete  silos  may  be  put  5  feet  into  the  ground,  and  the 
foundation  should  be  built  very  secure.  A  drain  may  be  put 
underneath  as  illustrated  in  Figure  100. 

Forms  for  building  concrete  silos  are  usually  about  3  feet  tall 
and  one  section  of  about  3  feet  may  be  added  to  the  silo  daily 
until  it  is  complete. 

The  sand  and  gravel  used  in  building  a  concrete  silo  should  be 
absolutely  clean,  otherwise  the  work  will  not  be  durable  and 
satisfactory.  The  amount  of  aggregates  needed  in  putting  on  a 
wall  one  foot  high  follows  : 

AMOUNT  OF  MATERIAL  NECESSARY  FOR  A  SILO  WALL,  i  FOOT  IN  HEIGHT 
AND  6  INCHES  THICK,  MADE  OF  A  i :  2 : 4  MIXTURE 


DIAMETER 

BARRELS  OF  CEMENT 

SAND 

GRAVEL 

Feet       / 

Cubic  Yards 

Cubic  Yards 

8 

.78 

•23 

.46 

10 

.96 

•30 

.60 

12 

1.14 

.36 

.72 

14 

1.32 

.42 

.84 

16 

1.50 

•47 

•94 

18 

1.68 

•53 

i.  06 

234 


LIVE   STOCK   AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


Reenforcement  material  for  silos  is  of  two  kinds:  the  tri- 
angular mesh  reenforcing  material  made  especially  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  rods.  The  triangular  mesh  wire  comes  in  1 4-inch  and 


FIG.   101.  —  Building  a  silo  and  a  metal  form  for  monolithic  silo  construction. 

38-inch  widths.     The  latter  gives  2  inches  for  overlapping  into 
the  concrete  put  on  the  next  day. 

Concrete  roofs  are  usually  put  on  concrete  silos,  and  spaces 
are  left  for  doors.  Chutes  are  often  built  of  concrete  and  made 
an  integral  part  of  the  silo,  although  wood  chutes  are  sometimes 
built. 


CONCRETE  STRUCTURES 


235 


Hollow  tile  silos  are  becoming  more  common,  especially  in  the 
Northern  States,  because  the  hollow  air  space  is  a  protection 
against  heat  or  cold. 

Other  things  which  may  be  constructed   from   concrete.  - 
Porches,  porch  piers,  gutters,  hog  wallows,  dipping  vats,  manure 


FIG.  102.  —  Types  of  concrete  blocks. 

pits,  flower  boxes,  cisterns,  mangers,  hotbeds,  retaining  walls, 
milk  houses,  garages,  corn  cribs,  granaries,  and  bases  for  machin- 
ery may  all  be  made  of  concrete. 

Summary.  —  Wood  and  steel  as  building  material  are  being 
replaced  by  concrete.  Concrete  has  many  advantages  and  some 
disadvantages.  In  order  that  satisfactory  results  may  be  secured 
with  concrete  the  materials  used  must  be  of  the  best  quality, 
and  the  utmost  care  must  be  used  in  the  method  of  construction. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Estimate  the  materials  needed  and  determine  the  cost  of  construct- 
ing a  concrete  walk  three  feet  wide  and  extending  from  your  house  to  the 
barn  or  to  some  other  near-by  building. 

2.  Estimate  the  cost  of  constructing  a  concrete  wheat  bin  which  will 
hold  300  bushels  of  wheat. 

3.  Often  pits  are  found  in  concrete  roads.     What  is  the  cause  of  these 
pits?     Cracks  are  often  found  in  concrete  walls.     What  is  the  cause? 
Sometimes  concrete  crumbles  easily  and  in  the  case  of  roads  the  concrete 
wears  away  easily.     What  causes  the  concrete  to  crumble  ? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
ROAD   CONSTRUCTION 

Benefits  of  good  roads.  —  Well-built  roads  benefit  the  farmer 
in  several  ways:  (i)  They  allow  him  to  market  his  products, 
such  as  wheat,  oats,  corn,  and  hay ;  and  his  animals  or  animal 
products,  such  as  milk,  butter,  and  eggs  any  day  in  the  year. 
A  large  part  of  the  farmer's  products  are  seasonal  and  are  there- 
fore dumped  upon  the  market  during  a  short  period.  This 
causes  the  prices  to  go  very  low.  If  the  farmer  could  hold  his 
product  and  market  it  during  the  season  when  the  inflow  of  the 
supply  is  at  a  low  ebb,  he  would  then  have  a  chance  to  get  the 
highest  market  price.  (2)  Good  roads  save  time.  His  products 
may  be  stored  in  summer  and  marketed  in  winter.  This  con- 
serves his  time  in  summer  which  is  the  period  of  production. 
Again,  the  time  of  travel  is  shortened  by  good  roads.  On  muddy 
roads  it  requires  as  much  as  three  hours  to  haul  a  small  load  8 
miles ;  whereas  if  the  roadbed  is  firm  twice  as  large  a  load  may 
be  hauled  in  a  shorter  time.  (3)  Good  roads  lessen  the  wear  on 
the  vehicle  and  upon  the  motive  power.  A  wagon  or  an  auto 
truck  will  last  almost  twice  as  long  on  a  good  road  as  on  a  bad 
road ;  and  the  repairs  on  vehicles  will  be  less  where  they  are  used 
on  good  roads.  (4)  Good  roads  make  for  better  attendance  of 
rural  people  at  church  and  school.  Good  roads  improve  social 
conditions. 

In  the  last  5  or  10  years  roads  have  been  much  improved ;  and 
it  is  safe  to  presume  that  in  the  next  decade  or  two,  greater  im- 

236 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION 


237 


provements  will  be  made  than  have  been  made  in  all  preceding 
road  history  combined.  It  has  been  found  that  it  is  economy 
to  build  good  roads.  The  rural  mail  delivery,  the  extension  of 
the  parcel  post  system,  the  use  of  automobiles  and  auto  trucks, 
the  consolidated  school,  and  the  federated  church  have  all  aided 
in  the  improvement  of  roads. 


FIG.  103.  —  The  benefits  of  good  roads  are  good  horses,  good  homes,  and  better  commu- 
nities. The  above  is  the  Rock  Levee  Road  just  south  of  Cape  Girardeau,  Missouri,  bor- 
dering the  Mississippi  River. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  505  states  that  roads  have  two  bene- 
fits, —  an  economic  and  a  social  benefit.  The  economic  benefits 
are :  (i)  reduction  in  cost  of  hauling ;  (2)  aid  in  an  equal  distri- 
bution of  agricultural  products ;  that  is,  products  may  be  hauled 


238  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

any  day  in  the  year;  (3)  increased  value  of  farm  land;  and 
(4)  increased  tourist  travel.  The  social  benefits  of  good  roads 
according  to  this  bulletin  are :  (i)  improved  schools  and  school 
attendance;  (2)  improved  rural  delivery;  (3)  improved  social 
conditions ;  and  (4)  development  of  a  community  spirit. 

Essentials  of  good  roads.  —  The  essentials  of  good  roads 
are:  (i)  proper  location;  (2)  easy  grades;  and  (3)  a  smooth, 
hard,  durable  surface. 

1.  Roads  should  first  of  all  be  properly  located.     Every  state 
should  have  a  state  system  of  highways  to  which  communities 
may  build.     Large  centers  of  population  should  be  connected 
with  good  roads.     Then  county  seats  and  other  towns  should  be 
the  basis  for  the  location  of  roads.     The  topography  of  the  land 
may  in  some  instances  determine  the  location  of  roads,  and 
in  other  instances  section  lines.     In  the  newer  states  roads  are 
located  along  section  lines.     In  the  older  states  roads  are  generally 
winding  roads  because  they  were  laid  out  haphazardly  before 
section  lines  were  located. 

2.  Easy  grades  are  very  helpful  in  making  roads  satisfactory 
and  comfortable.     Grades  should  not  exceed  3  per  cent,  or  a 
3-foot  rise  in  100  feet  of  road.     Roads  which  are  not  used  much 
may  have  a  6-foot  rise  in  100  feet.     But  in  the  long  run  it  pays 
to  make  the  cuts  deep  and  the  fills  high,  for  it  conserves  energy 
and  time  and  makes  the  road  much  more  satisfactory. 

3.  A  smooth,  hard,  durable  wearing  surface  is  essential  to  a 
good  road.     Concrete  makes  a  smooth  surface,  and  a  surface 
which  is  durable  when  it  is  properly  constructed. 

Kinds  of  roads.  —  The  kinds  of  roads  are :  (i)  dirt  roads, 
(2)  gravel  roads,  (3)  macadam  roads,  and  (4)  concrete  roads. 

i.  A  road  made  of  clay,  when  well  rounded  at  the  top  and 
kept  smooth  by  rolling  and  dragging,  makes  a  very  serviceable 
road.  Dirt  roads  constitute,  according  to  the  Office  of  Public 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION  239 

Road  and  Rural  Engineering,  89.5  per  cent  of  all  roads  in  the 
United  States,  or  2,200,000  miles.  All  other  roads  combined 
constitute  about  300,000  miles.  It  may  be  seen  that  dirt  roads 
will  for  many  years  to  come  be  the  chief  roads  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  dirt  road  should  be  well 
considered.  Dirt  roads  should  be  at  least  18  feet  wide,  and 
where  there  is  much  traffic  they  should  be  30  feet  wide.  Clay, 
sand,  and  gravel  are  used  in  the  building  of  dirt  roads.  Clay 
makes  a  fairly  good  road,  and  a  road  made  of  two  thirds  clay  and 


FIG.  104.  —  View  of  a  split-log  drag.     Its  use  has  done  more  after  roads  were  properly 
constructed  to  make  good  roads  than  all  other  things  combined. 

one  third  sand  usually  makes  a  fine  road.  Drainage  is  very 
important  in  road  construction.  For  this  reason  the  crown 
should  slope  to  the  sides  at  the  rate  of  i  inch  to  the  foot.  Side 
ditches  should  be  so  made  that  surface  water  is  rapidly  carried 
away. 

The  split-log  drag  used  on  earth  roads  is  indispensable.  The 
road  drag  has  several  advantages:  (a)  It  maintains  a  smooth 
surface,  which  reduces  the  draft,  and  causes  the  road  to  drain 
itself  naturally.  (6)  It  reduces  the  mud  and  ruts  in  the  road, 


240  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

causes  the  road  to  dry  out  readily,  and,  hence,  makes  the  road 
much  more  serviceable,  (c)  It  packs  the  roadbed,  which  tends 
to  keep  down  the  dust,  (d)  It  eliminates  the  grass  and  weeds 
of  the  portion  of.  the  road  dragged. 

Roads  should  be  dragged  at  the  right  time ;  that  is,  when  the 
soil  is  moist  but  not  sticky.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  how  often 
roads  need  dragging,  for  this  depends  upon  a  good  many  con- 
ditions. This  should  be  left  to  the  advice  and  counsel  of  road 
men. 

Oiling  earth  roads  helps  to  keep  down  the  dust,  to  drain  the 
road,  and  to  make  it  more  durable.  Crude  oil  or  the  residuum 
secured  in  refining  oil  is  fine  road-oiling  material.  It  requires 
almost  one  gallon  of  the  oil  per  square  yard  of  road.  This,  of 
course,  depends  somewhat  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  found 
in  the  roadbed.  Oiling  of  earth  roads  is  practicable  around 
towns,  but  probably  not  in  the  rural  districts,  because  it  costs 
more  than  rural  conditions  will  justify. 

2.  Gravel  roads  constitute  about  4^  per  cent  or  116,000  miles 
of  the  roads  of  the  United  States.  There  are  two  distinct  opera- 
tions in  making  the  graveled  road.  These  are  grading  and 
graveling.  Grades  should  not  exceed  3  or  4  feet  per  100  feet; 
and  the  crown  of  the  road  should  range  from  J  to  i  inch  fall 
per  foot.  Figure  105  illustrates  how  the  road  should  be  prepared 
and  graveled. 

The  depth  of  the  gravel  at  the  crown  should  be  8  to  10  inches 
where  there  is  heavy  traffic,  and  6  to  8  inches  where  the  traffic 
is  light.  The  gravel  is  usually  put  down  in  two  or  three  layers. 
After  each  layer  is  put  down  it  should  be  harrowed  well,  and  then 
compacted  with  an  8-ton  roller.  The  kind  of  gravel  used  affects 
materially  the  durability  of  the  road.  Hard  pebbles  composed 
of  quartz  or  chert  make  the  best  road  material.  Soft  stones  and 
stones  composed  of  sand  are  not  good  road-building  material. 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION  241 

A  small  amount  of  clay,  up  to  10  per  cent  of  the  entire  mass, 
helps  in  binding  the  road  material  together.  The  first  layer  of 
gravel  may  contain  larger  pebbles  but  the  covering  layer  should 
not  contain  pebbles  larger  than  J  to  \  inch ;  for  larger  pebbles 
cause  the  road  to  wear  unevenly,  and  the  larger  pebbles  will 
be  constantly  sticking  above  the  level  of  the  road.  Many  locali- 
ties have  excellent  gravel  beds  which  furnish  the  best  of  material 


j-6  to  10  inches 


— Cross  section  ready  to  receive  the  surfacing  material. 


Cross  section  showing  the  first  course  of  gravel  spread  and  rolled 
Broken  line  shows  the  finished  road  section. 


Cross  section  of  completed  road.. 


TYPiCAL  CROSS  SECTIONS  SHOWING  METHOD  OF  CONSTRUCTING  A  GRAVEL  ROAD 

"Wshould  be  at  teast  10  feet  for  single  track  roadway  and  "S"deneraJly 
not  less  than  5  feet-,  for  double  track."W"should  be  not  'less  "than  14  feet 
and  "S"not  less  than  3  feet. 

"H".  crown,  varies  from  5  inch  per  foot  for  level  grade,  to'  I  inch  oer 
foot  for  a  grade  of  5%.  2 

FIG.  105. 

for  graveling  roads.  This  reduces  the  cost  of  road  construction  ; 
for  ordinarily  it  has  been  found  that  it  is  not  expedient  to  trans- 
port gravel  more  than  100  miles  for  road  building. 

The  gravel  used  in  building  roads  should  be  thoroughly  ce- 
mented or  tied  together  by  a  binding  material  such  as  clay,  lime, 
or  iron  oxide.  These  substances  are  often  naturally  found  in  the 
gravel  used.  This  binding  material  ties  or  binds  the  gravel  to- 
gether so  that  the  road  presents  a  combined  resistance  to  the 
disturbing  action  of  the  traffic. 


242 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


CROSS  SECTION  ROMAN  ROAD  (Appian  Way) 


CROSS  SECTION'FRENCH  ROAD  (Roman  Method) 

PREVIOUS  TO  1775 


3.  Macadam  roads  were  first  built  by  John  L.  Macadam,  and 
hence  their  name.     Macadam  roads  are  built  from  artificially 
broken  stones,  and  are  bonded,  cemented,  or  tied  together  with 

rock  dust.  Such  a  road 
might  properly  be 
called  a  broken-stone 
road. 

Macadam  roads  are 
usually  12  to  16  feet 
wide,  have  a  crown 
which  drains  well,  and 
the  macadam  is  gener- 
ally 6  inches  deep  at 
the  center,  and  4  or  5 
inches  deep  at  the 
sides.  In  constructing 
the  macadam  road, 
the  subgrade  is  first 
made  and  then  a  course 
of  stones  is  put  on, 
which  is  thoroughly 
packed  with  a  heavy 
roller.  The  second 
course  of  stones  is  then 
put  on  and  rolled  until 

the  surface  is  smooth  and  even  in  every  direction.  Before  the 
roller  is  used,  sand  or  rock  screenings  are  put  on  the  road,  and 
this  material  should  close  all  voids.  This  protects  the  road 
from  water,  and  makes  a  better  traffic  surface. 

4.  Roads  made  of  concrete  are  becoming  more  common,  and 
they  seem  to  be  growing  in  popularity.    The  principal  advantages 
of  concrete  roads  are :   (i)  They  are  fairly  durable  and  the  main- 


CROSS  SECTION  MACADAM  ROAD   1816 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  MODERN  MACADAM  (Massachusetts) 
ROAD  WITH  V-SHAPED  FOUNDATION 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  MODERN  MACADAM  ROAD 


FIG.  106.  —  Cross  sections  of  different  kinds  of  roads. 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION  243 

tenance  cost  is  very  low.  (2)  They  are  smooth  and  offer  little 
resistance  to  traffic.  An  average  horse  can  pull  one  ton  on  a 
good  level  clay  road  ;  i  f  tons  on  a  good  gravel  road  ;  2  f  tons  on 
a  good  level  macadam  road,  and  5  tons  on  a  good  concrete  road. 

(3)  They  are  practically  free  from  dust,  and  may  be  easily  cleaned. 

(4)  They  present  a  pleasing  appearance.     (5)  They  reduce  the 
cost  of  hauling.     (6)  They  can  be  used  every  day  of  the  year. 


FIG.  107.  —  Hauling  cotton  on  a  concrete  road  in  Madison  County,  Tennessee.     Notice 
the  large  loads  that  are  being  hauled. 

The  sub  grade  should  be  well  prepared.  The  principal  con- 
siderations in  preparing  the  subgrade  are :  (a)  adequate  drainage, 
(b)  firmness,  and  (c)  gentle  grades. 

a.  Good  drainage  is  absolutely  essential  to  a  good  roadbed, 
for  if  the  subgrade  is  not  properly  drained,  water  will  get  into 
concrete,  and  during  winter  it  will  likely  be  broken  by  freezes. 
b.  Firmness  is  a  second  requirement  of  a  roadbed,  and 


244  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

this  may  be  secured  by  properly  draining  and  compacting 
the  bed  with  a  heavy  roller,  c.  The  roadbed  should  have 
gentle  grades.  It  is  well  known  that  a  horse  can  draw  only 
one  half  as  much  on  a  five  per  cent  grade  as  he  can  draw 
on  the  level ;  and  on  a  ten  per  cent  grade  he  can  pull  only  one 
fourth  as  much.  The  steepest  hill  fixes  the  load  which  can  be 
drawn  over  a  road  and,  hence,  it  is  much  better  to  make  the 
grades  as  gentle  as  possible. 

In  building  a  concrete  road  a  i :  2  :  4  mixture  is  recommended. 
The  proper  depth  of  the  concrete  is  about  7  inches  in  the  center 
and  4  or  5  inches  at  the  sides.  Aggregates  which  are  greater  than 
1 1  inches  in  size  should  not  be  used.  When  the  concrete  is  poured 
on  the  roadbed,  it  may  be  smoothed  and  leveled  with  a  long  board 
drag.  The  coarse  stones  may  be  lowered  slightly  with  a  drag 
before  the  concrete  sets,  and  the  surface  is  best  smoothed  with  a 
board  drag.  The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  that  only  clean 
aggregates  are  used,  for  if  clay  and  dirt  are  incorporated  in  the 
road,  it  will  be  only  a  short  time  until  small  openings  may  be 
seen  in  the  surface  of  the  road.  These  small  pits  soon  enlarge, 
and  winter  weather  may  cause  the  concrete  to  be  cracked  open 
by  freezes. 

Transverse  joints  are  placed  at  regular  intervals  of  25  to  50 
feet  in  concrete  roads.  These  joints,  made  of  board  or  bitumi- 
nous felt  board,  protect  the  concrete  against  expansion  and  con- 
traction and  prevent  cracks  from  spreading.  A  one-half  inch 
joint  placed  at  25-foot  intervals  is  sufficient  to  protect  the  con- 
crete road. 

What  otherwise  would  be  a  good  job  of  concreting  is  often 
spoiled  by  improper  curing.  Concrete  should  not  be  exposed 
to  the  hot  sun,  or  be  permitted  to  be  dried  out  quickly  by  the 
wind.  It  may  be  protected  against  both  sun  and  wind  by  cover- 
ing it  with  a  thin  layer  of  straw,  canvas,  or  soil.  Concrete  sets 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION  245 

in  24  hours,  but  it  should  be  left  to  cure  for  three  weeks,  or  better 
still  for  4  weeks  if  the  toughest,  firmest,  and  best  concrete  is  to 
be  obtained.  Concrete  roads  may  be  constructed  when  the 
temperature  is  down  to  35°  Fahrenheit,  if  the  suggestions  of  the 
previous  chapter  are  followed. 

Roads  should  be  well  marked.  —  For  illustration  a  State 
highway  passing  through  the  state  of  Illinois  from  Chicago  to 
St.  Louis  might  be  marked  by  the  number  i. 
Posts  along  this  highway  might  be  belted  with 
white  paint,  and  a  black  Arabic  i  be  conspic- 
uously painted  in  this  white  belt,  or  the  black 
numeral  might  be  placed  in  a  white  triangle 
as  shown  in  Figure  108. 

The   posts    along   the    road   leading   from      FIG.  I08.  —  Roads 

„,  .  ,T          .,     ,         .    ,       ,  .       ,        .          may    be    marked   with 

Chicago  to  Hannibal  might  be  marked  with    Arabic  numerals, 
an  Arabic  2.     In  fact,  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment should  first  mark  and  label  the  National  highways ;    that 
is,  highways  extending  throughout  the  land  by  some  simple 
symbols,  —  numbers    are  'preferable,  —  and    then    each    state 
should  mark  its  own  roads  in  conformity  with  the  marks  used  by 
the  Government. 

Summary.  —  The  benefits  of  good  roads  from  an  economic  and 
social  standpoint  can  hardly  be  estimated.  Better  schools, 
churches,  and  communities  are  inevitably  the  result  of  good 
roads ;  and  economically  the  farmer  and  the  consumer  are  both 
benefited,  because  the  farmer  can  distribute  his  products  more 
evenly  throughout  the  year,  and  hence  the  consumers'  demand  is 
more  nearly  supplied.  Dirt  roads  constitute  the  major  part  of  our 
roads  and,  therefore,  it  is  important  to  know  how  to  construct 
and  maintain  the  dirt  road.  Grading,  draining,  and  dragging 
are  essential  to  a  good  dirt  road.  Where  there  is  more  traffic, 
gravel  and  macadam  roads  are  built ;  and  at  the  present  time 


246  LIVE   STOCK   AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

many  states  are  planning  and  building  a  system  of  State  highways 
made  of  cement,  sand,  and  gravel  all  bonded  together  into  con- 
crete. This  makes  a  durable  road,  one  which  reduces  the  draft 
to  a  minimum,  and  saves  time  and  wear.  Good  roads  are  a 
mark  of  civilization,  but  poor  roads  are  a  mark  of  the  lack  of 
progress.  All  money  spent  on  road  building  should  be  economi- 
cally expended  and  ordinarily  under  the  advice  of  men  who  are 
experts  in  road  building. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  By  way  of  a  survey  estimate  the  mileage  of  dirt,  gravel,  and  con- 
crete roads  in  your  school  district.     Also  find  out  if  possible  the  cost  of 
mileage  construction. 

2.  If  possible  construct  a  road  drag,  and  drag  a  half  mile  or  more  of 
road  near  the  school.     Compare  from  time  to  time  its  condition  with  other 
stretches  of  similar  road  which  is  not  dragged. 

3.  Debate:   Resolved,  That   it  is  more   advantageous  for  your  county 
or  district  to  have  dirt  and  gravel  roads  than  to  construct  in  their  place 
concrete  roads. 

4.  Gather  as  much  information  as   possible    on    the    laws   governing 
and  the  methods  used  in  building  and  maintaining  the  roads  in  your  county 
and  state. 

5.  Discuss  fully  the  relation  of  the  roads  of  your  locality  to  the  dis- 
tribution and  marketing  of  farm  products,  first,  as  to  cost  of  transporta- 
tion;   second,  as  to  amount  of  energy  required  to  haul  a  load;    third,  as 
to  wear  and  tear  upon  vehicle  used ;  and  fourth,  as  to  time  required  on  the 
road. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
ROPE  WORK 

Importance  of  knot  tying.  —  Every  person  ties  some  knots 
every  day.  How  to  tie  a  shoe  string  so  that  it  will  stay  tied  and 
look  well  is  important.  How  to  tie  a  horse  or  a  cow  so  that  the 
knot  will  not  slip  and  strangle  the  animal  tied  is  valuable  infor- 
mation. Sometimes  the  hay  rope  breaks  just  when  most  needed, 
and  a  knowledge  of  how  to  splice  it  saves  time  and  may  save  a 
good  part  of  the  crop.  The  use  of  cord,  twine,  rope,  fishline,  and 
steel  cables  finds  a  broad  and  general  application  in  the  daily 
life  of  our  people.  In  every  line  of  work  a  knowledge  of  the 
practical  application  of  the  different  knots,  hitches,  and  splices 
is  very  valuable.  The  laboratory  work  in  rope  tying  is  both 
interesting  and  practical,  and  can  hardly  be  overemphasized. 

Rope  materials.  —  The  most  common  materials  used  in  mak- 
ing rope  are  manila,  sisal,  hemp,  cotton,  and  wire.  Manila  fiber, 
which  is  named  after  the  city  of  Manila,  forms  about  60  per  cent 
of  the  exports  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  It  is  procured  from  the 
leaf  sheath  of  the  banana-palm  plant,  which  is  native  to  the 
Philippines.  This  plant  grows  8  to  20  feet  tall  and  the  leaf 
sheaths  are  5  to  1 2  feet  long.  The  manila  fiber  is  cut  and  scraped 
from  the  leaf  and  leaf  sheath  and  dried  in  the  sun.  The  yield 
of  this  fiber  ranges  from  600  to  650  pounds  per  acre.  The  price 
of  the  fiber  varies  from  6  to  18  cents  per  pound  in  New  York 
City.  A  pound  will  make  650  feet  of  twine  of  the  best  quality. 

The  sisal  plant  is  native  to  Yucatan.  This  plant  resembles 

247 


248  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

the  century  plant.  The  fiber  ranges  from  3  to  4  feet  in  length, 
and  is  very  harsh  and  stiff.  The  price  of  sisal  ranges  from  5  to 
1 2  cents  per  pound  in  New  York  City.  Sisal  fiber  will  make  about 
500  feet  of  twine  per  pound.  It  is  whiter  than  manila  fiber, 
and  the  two  are  often  mixed  in  rope  making. 

Hemp  is  used  to  some  extent  in  making  cord  and  rope. 

Cotton  makes  an  excellent  cord,  for  it  is  soft  and  white,  but  the 
cotton  fiber  on  account  of  its  shortness  and  lack  of  strength  can- 
not be  used  in  rope  making  where  strength  is  required.  But  for 
store  use  and  tying  small  halters  cotton  has  no  equal. 

Wire  is  used  in  making  ropes  where  great  strength  is  required. 
Thus  in  dredging  machinery,  derricks,  and  lifting  machinery 
wire  cables  are  used.  Wire  ropes  are  used  in  the  construction 
of  suspension  bridges. 

Definition  of  terms.  —  A  few  of  the  more  common  terms  used 
in  connection  with  rope  work  will  be  explained. 

A  yam  is  formed  by  twisting  fibers  together. 

A  thread  is  composed  of  two  or  more  small  yarns  twisted 
together. 

A  strand  is  composed  of  two  or  more  large  yarns  twisted  to- 
gether. 

A  cord  is  composed  of  several  threads  twisted  together. 

A  rope  is  made  up  of  several  strands  twisted  together. 

A  hawser  is  a  rope  composed  of  three  strands. 

A  cable  is  composed  of  three  hawsers  twisted  together. 

A  hawser  or  a  rope  of  three  strands  will  bear  a  greater  strain 
in  comparison  to  its  size  than  a  rope  made  of  any  other  number 
of  strands. 

Whipping  rope.  —  Sometimes  the  end  of  a  rope  becomes 
unraveled.  Then  it  needs  to  be  re-laid  before  it  can  be  whipped. 

The  process  of  twisting  together  strands  of  rope  which  have 
become  untwisted  is  known  as  re-laying. 


ROPE  WORK 


249 


Figure  109  illustrates  the  method  of  re-laying  a  rope.  Hold  the 
rope  firmly  with  the  left  hand,  and  twist  each  strand  firmly  with 
the  right  hand,  re-lay,  and  pull  it  snugly  into  its  place.  If  this 
work  is  done  well  the  rope  may  be  a  little  smaller  yet  a  little 
stronger  because  it  has  been  firmly  twisted  together. 

Binding  the  end  of  a  rope  so  that  it  will  not  unravel  is  known 
as  whipping.  A  large  knot  on  the  end  of  a  rope  is  not  only  in- 


FIG.  109.  —  Re-laying  the  strands  of 
a  rope. 


FIG.  no.  —  First  step  in  whip- 
ping a  rope. 


convenient  but  it  requires  about  8  or  10  inches  of  rope.  A  knot 
will  not  pass  through  pulley  blocks  or  a  hole  in  a  hitching  post. 
In  whipping  a  rope  take  a  string  about  two  feet  long  and  lay  one 
end  on  the  rope,  permitting  the  string  to  extend  i\  or  3  inches 
beyond  the  end  of  the  rope. 

Then  take  the  other  end  of  the  string  and  lay  it  on  the  rope 
with  the  end  pointing  down  as  shown  in  Figure  1 1 1 . 

Now  with  the  right  hand  wind  string  tightly  around  the  rope. 
Keep  on  wrapping  the  string  around  the  rope  until  the  string  is 
almost  used  up.  Then  pull  the  end  of  the  string  until  it  is  tight. 


250 


LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


FIG.  in.  —  Second  step  in  whipping  a  rope 


FIG.  112.  —  The  finished  whipping. 


This  completes  the  process  of  whipping.  Do  this  several  times 
because  practice  makes  for  perfection.  Figure  112  shows  the 
finished  whipping. 

Useful  knots. — There  are  prob- 
ably 50  or  60  different  kinds  of 
knots.  Each  of  these  knots  is 
useful  under  certain  conditions. 
The  average  fanner  makes  prac- 
tical use  of  8  or  i  o  different  knots. 
The  most  useful  knots  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  this  chaper. 

1.  The  overhand  knot  is  the  simplest  of  all  knots.     It  is  made 

by  making  a  simple  loop  in 

the  rope. 

If  a  knot  is  tied  at  the 

end  of  a  rope  and  the  rope 

put  around  a  horse's  neck 
and  through  the  overhand  knot,  it  will  in  no  way  strangle  the 
horse.  In  this  respect  it  is  a  safe  knot. 

2.  The  slip  knot  is  sometimes  used  in  tying  horses  and  other 
live  stock.     It  should  never  be  used  in  this  manner. 

The  slip  knot  with  a  loop  so  that  it  is  easily  unfastened  is  used 
in  tying  animals  to  the  manger.    It  is  often  called  the  manger  knot. 


FIG.  113.  —  Overhand  knot. 


ROPE  WORK 


251 


FIG.  114.  — Slipknot. 

3.  The  square  knot,  reef  knot,  or  the  sailor's  knot  is  one  of  the 
commonest  knots  made.  It  is  a  dependable  knot  for  it  will  not  slip. 

In  tying  the  square  knot  put  rope  together  as  shown  in  Figure 
115 ;  then  extend  the  part  of  the  rope  labeled  a  over  the  part 


FIG.  115-  —  Square  knot. 


FIG.  116. — Square  knot  completed. 

The  completed  knot  is  shown  in 


labeled  b  and  pull  the  ends. 
Figure  116. 

The  ends  of  the  rope  lie  parallel  in  the  square  knot.  Make  the 
square  knot  until  it  is  easily  made.  Shoes  tied  with  the  square 
knot  appear  well. 


252 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


4.  The  granny  knot  is  often  made  and 
is  mistaken  for  the  square  knot,  but  it  has 
little  value  because  it  slips  too  easily. 
The  first  step  in  making  the  granny  knot 
is  like  that  used  in  making  the  square 
knot,  but  in  completing  it,  the  strand  a 
passes  behind  the  strand  b  before  it  is 
passed  through  the  loop.  Note  the  knot 


FIG.  117. — The  shoe  on 
the  right  foot  is  tied  with  a 
square  knot.  The  other  shoe 
is  tied  with  a  granny  knot. 
Note  the  difference  in  ap- 
pearance. 


FIG.  1 1 8.  —  Granny  knot. 


in  Figure  118  and  compare  it  with  the   square   knot. 

Make  the  granny  knot,  and  see  how  easily  it  slips  and  unties. 
It  is  not  a  safe  knot. 

5.  The  surgeon's  knot  is  a  modified  form  of  the  square  knot. 
In  making  the  surgeon's  knot,  twist  rope  twice  which  prevents 

it  from  slipping,  and  then  tie 
rope  with  one  twist  as  in  the 
square  knot.  It  is  used,  as 
the  name  indicates,  by  sur- 

FlG.  119.  — Surgeon's  knot.  geons 

6.  Figure  8  knot.    This  knot  is  made  by  making  a  loop  in  the 
rope  by  passing  the  end  a  over  the  part  labeled  b  at  X  as  shown  in 
Figure  120. 


FIG.  1 20.  —  Figure  8  knot. 


The  end  a  is  then  passed  beneath  the  standing  part  b  and  is 
brought  back  through  the  loop  as  shown  in  the  figure  above. 


ROPE  WORK 


253 


7.  Bowline  knot,  one  of  the  best  knots,  is  easily  tied  and  un- 
tied, and  does  not  slip.  It  is  used  on  farms,  in  construction  work, 
and  in  almost  every  line  of  industry.  Sailors  use  this  knot  in 
fastening  the  line  of  the  bow  of  the  vessel  when  mooring,  and 
therefore  the  name. 

The  bowline  knot  is  made  by  passing  the  end  of  the  rope,  a, 
through  a  rope  or  around  a  post.  A  half  hitch  is  made.  The 


FIG.  121.  —  Bowline  knot. 


end  a  is  then  passed  and  brought  through  the  loop  b.  Then  the 
end  a  is  passed  over  the  standing  part  of  the  rope  at  c.  Next 
the  end  a  is  passed  back  through  the  loop  b.  Then  the  rope  is 
tightened.  This  completes  the  bowline  knot. 

8.  Miller's  knot.  The  miller's  knot  is  used  by  millers  to  tie 
sacks.  This  knot  is  used  because  it  is  easily  tied  and  untied, 
and  because  it  does  not  slip.  The  illustration  in  Figure  122 
shows  how  the  miller's  knot  is  tied. 

Some  useful  splices.  —  Broken  ropes  may  be  mended  and 
spliced  so  that  they  may  continue  to  be  used.  Hayfork  ropes 
although  new  may  be  accidentally  broken,  and  a  knowledge  of 


254  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


FlG.  122.  —  Miller's  knot. 


FIG.  123.  —  Short  splice. 


ROPE   WORK 


255 


how  to  splice  a  rope  saves  time  and  makes  possible  the  continu- 
ance of  the  work.     There  are  two  kinds  of  splices :    the  short 


a 


1 


FIG.  124.  —  Long  splice. 

splice  and  the  long  splice.  In  making  the  short  splice  6  to  8 
inches  of  the  rope  is  spliced  together.  Figure  123  illustrates 
the  short  splice. 

The  short  splice  is 
used  in  tying  halters 
and  in  making  hal- 
ters. 

The  long  splice  is 
used  where  more 
strength  is  required, 
as  in  cables  and  hay- 
fork ropes.  The  long 
splice  is  made  like  the 
short  splice.  In  a  ^-inch  rope  untwist  the  strands  of  the  rope  14 
to  1 6  inches,  then  twist  together  securely  as  shown  in  Figure  124. 

The  eye  splice  is  also  convenient  and  is  used  in  a  great  many 
ways.     The  preceding  cut  shows  the  eye  splice. 


FIG.  125.  —  Eye  splice. 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


FIG.  126.  —  Single-loop 
halter. 


Rope  halters.  —  Halters  made  of  rope  are  less  expensive  than 
leather  halters  and  are  more  secure.  Halters  are  usually  made 
of  f-inch  rope,  and  it  requires  about  13  feet  of  rope  to  make  a 
halter.  This  allows  for  a  nosepiece  of  14 
inches,  a  headpiece  of  36  inches,  a  lead  and 
tie  rope  about  7  to  8  feet  long. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  loop  halters :  a 
single-loop  halter  and  a  double-loop  halter. 
The  single-loop  halter  is  made  with  a  single 
loop  as  shown  in  Figure  126. 

The  single-loop  halter  will  not  slip  nor 
loosen,  and  is  therefore  not  adjustable. 
Since  it  is  not  adjustable,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary in  making  it  to  fit  the  nosepiece  and 
headpiece  on  the  animal's  head  before  com- 
pleting it. 

The  double-loop  halter  is  adjustable  and  can  be  made  any 
size,  but  it  is  not  satisfactory  for  contin- 
uous use  because  it  may  become  loose 
and  slip  off  the  head.  The  double-loop 
halter  is  made  by  making  an  eye  splice  at 
one  end  of  the  rope.  The  loop  splice 
should  be  just  large  enough  to  allow  the 
rope  to  pass  through  it,  but  not  too  large, 
for  this  will  cause  the  halter  to  loosen  too 
easily.  Figure  127  illustrates  the  double- 
loop  halter. 

Device  for  halter  pullers.  —  Horses  tied 
with  weak  leather  or  other  weak  halters 
often  form  the  habit  of  pulling  and  break- 
ing the  halter.     When  this  habit  is  once  formed  it  is  like  other 
habits  in  horses,  —  difficult   to  break.     The  shown  method  of 


FIG.  127.  —  Double-loop 
halter. 


ROPE   WORK 


257 


tying,  in  Figure  128,  is  the  most  effective  means  devised  to 
change  the  horse's  habits  because  he  will  fail  to  break  the  rope, 
and  a  different  habit  will  be  established  in  the  horse. 


FIG.  128.  —  Effective  device  for  halter  pullers. 

Summary.  —  Every  person  ties  some  knots  every  day,  and  the 
knowledge  how  to  tie  the  right  knot  at  the  right  time  is  important 
information.  Farm  animals  are  occasionally  strangled  because 
the  wrong  knot  is  used,  and  sometimes  the  lives  of  persons  are 
endangered  because  of  the  misuse  of  knots.  Practice  in  the 
tying  of  various  knots  will  be  both  interesting  and  practical 
and  very  helpful  in  giving  a  proper  understanding  of  the  use  of 
rope  work. 


258  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Have  a  knot-tying  contest.     See  who  can  tie  and  name  the  greatest 
number  of  knots  in  15  minutes  the  first  day.     Try  the  same  exercise  again 
on  subsequent  days.     Continue  to  do  this  for  several  days  until  considerable 
perfection  is  attained.     In  this  work  use  a  rope  about  j  inch  in  diameter. 

2.  Make  the  short  and  long  splice.     Take  some  rope  home  and  have 
your  father  make   these   splices.     He  may  have   need  for  them  in  his 
farming  operations. 

3.  Make  a  single-loop  halter. 

4.  Make  a  double-loop  halter. 

5.  Have  some  person  who  is  proficient  in  rope  tying  demonstrate  to 
the  school  how  to  make  various  knots,  and  explain  the  use  of  the  various 
knots  made. 


CHAPTER  XV 
FARM   HOME  CONVENIENCES 

Need  for  home  conveniences.  —  In  America  to-day  we  realize 
that  the  farmers  and  their  families  have  been  so  engaged  in 
making  a  living  that  enjoyment  has  been  neglected.  Living  in 
the  country  must  be  made  to  appeal  to  young  people  and  espe- 
cially to  the  ambitious  farm  boys  and  girls.  Country  life  has 
more  to  recommend  it  than  life  in  any  other  kind  of  a  community, 
provided  the  young  people  can  be  made  to  realize  new  ideals 
of  living  and  their  own  social  worth  and  importance.  The 
attractiveness  of  the  farm  home  and  scientific  home  making 
will  have  as  much  to  do  with  keeping  young  people  interested 
and  contented  as  scientific  farming.  Affairs  of  the  household, 
as  well  as  routine  farm  work,  should  be  managed  in  such  a  way 
as  to  give  time  for  social  and  cultural  improvement. 

We  find  fewer  conveniences  and  modern  labor-saving  devices 
in  the  farm  home  than  in  any  other  place  in  the  rural  community. 
The  housework  is  unattractive  and  exhausting,  for  the  equip- 
ment is  poorly  selected  and  arranged.  The  preparation  of  food 
and  the  washing  of  clothes  are  much  more  of  a  burden  than  they 
should  be.  The  farmer  buys  good  machinery  to  produce  and 
harvest  his  crops,  but  in  the  farm  home  labor-saving  equipment 
is  almost  unknown.  It  is  possible  for  the  farm  women  to  have 
the  conveniences  that  the  city  women  have  enjoyed  so  long,  - 
running  water  in  the  house  and  electricity  from  a  home  electric 
plant  to  do  the  washing,  ironing,  sweeping,  and  churning  as  well 

259 


260 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


as  to  light  the  home.  Beautiful  and  sanitary  surroundings  make 
for  better  home  and  health  conditions.  These  are  possible  in 
every  home,  since  they  involve  in  most  cases  very  little  extra 
expense  and  labor  to  provide  them  and  pay  for  themselves  a 
hundred  fold  in  improved  health  and  happiness  in  the  family 
life.  Such  improvements  instill  in  the  family  group  a  love  and 


Indoor  Kitchen  Pump 


Outdoor  Pump 

FIG.  129.  —  Simple  pump  used  in  pumping  water  into  the  kitchen. 

appreciation  of  life  in  the  country  that  will  never  exist  in  the 
old  inconvenient  farm  home. 

In  no  home  is  there  so  much  work  to  be  done  as  in  the  farm 
home,  and  it  is  very  necessary  that  all  the  members  of  the  house- 
hold cooperate.  House  labor  must  be  made  less  exhausting  by 
making  such  improvements  in  the  home  as  are  possible  with  the 
amount  of  money  available  and  by  using  thought  and  foresight 
in  locating  as  well  as  selecting  equipment. 


FARM  HOME   CONVENIENCES 


261 


Water  supply  for  the  farm  home.  —  Good  water  is  as  essential 
to  life  as  good  food.  Each  individual  in  the  home  requires  for 
drinking  and  cooking  about  one  gallon  per  day;  for  washing 
and  other  purposes  at  least  16  gallons  per  day.  On  most  farms 
the  water  is  obtained  from  wells,  cisterns,  or  springs,  and  must 
often  be  carried  for  a  considerable  distance.  After  it  has  served 
its  purpose,  it  must  be  disposed  of  and  often  must  be  carried  out 
of  the  house  again.  It  is  surprising  how  much  energy  is  wasted 


H 


FIG.  130.  —  How  the  house  pump  is  attached  to  the  kitchen  sink. 

to-day  by  these  processes,  even  though  we  have  efficiency  experts 
in  factory  and  home,  working  to  eliminate  useless  waste  of  human 
life  and  energy.  The  poorest  home  can  have  some  kind  of  a 
sink  with  satisfactory  pipes  to  carry  away  the  waste  water  from 
the  kitchen.  Most  homes  can  also  have  some  kind  of  a  pump 
to  lift  the  water  from  well,  cistern,  or  other  source  of  supply, 
into  the  kitchen.  The  amount  of  money  available,  and  the  size 
of  the  house  and  the  family  will  determine  the  kind  of  water 
system ;  but  the  important  thing  is  to  get  one  of  some  kind  into 


262 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


every  farm  kitchen  in  this  country  so  that  good  clean  water  is 
easily  available  at  all  times.  Various  types  of  equipment  and 
the  advantages  of  each  will  be  discussed. 


FIG.  131.  —  How  the  pressure  tank  system  of  water  appears  in  a  dwelling. 

1.  When  the  cistern  or  well  is  near  the  house  the  simplest 
and  cheapest  method  is  to  place  a  kitchen  or  lift  pump  over  the 
sink  in  the  kitchen. 

2.  The  house  force  pump  is  more  expensive  but  also  much  more 
satisfactory  than  the  lift  pump,  for  it  furnishes  a  steady  stream 


FARM  HOME   CONVENIENCES 


263 


of  water  instead  of  an  intermittent  one  and  it  provides  a  limited 
amount  of  water  under  pressure. 

A  pump  of  this  type  may  be  used  in  connection  with  a  tank  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  house  to  furnish  water  for  both  the  kitchen 
and  bathroom  for  a  small  family.  It  does  not  require  too  much 
effort  to  work  the  pump  ; 
and  if  a  few  spare  minutes 
each  day  are  given  to 
pumping,  a  satisfactory 
water  supply  can  be  main- 
tained. 

3 .  For  larger  houses  or 
where  a  large  amount  of 
water  is  required  a  regular 
tank  pump  may  be  in- 
stalled. The  chief  danger 
is  from  freezing,  if  the 
tank  used  is  in  the  attic 
of  a  house  in  a  very  cold 
climate.  If  extremely 
cold  weather  is  probable, 
then  the  pressure- tank 


FIG.  132.  —  A  water  tank  which  supplies  water  to 
the  entire  house  by  gravity. 


system  is  more  satisfac- 
tory. 

However,    the    house 

force  pump  with  an  elevated  tank  has  often  been  used  to  supply 
water  for  kitchen,  bathroom,  and  hot  water  furnace  in  an 
average-sized  house  for  an  average-sized  family;  and  such  a 
system  is  cheaper  than  the  pressure- tank  system. 

4.  Of  course  the  system  may  be  made  more  satisfactory  and  a 
larger  amount  of  water  may  be  supplied  by  installing  a  gasoline 
engine,  wind  mill,  or  electric  motor  in  connection  with  the  plant. 


264  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

This  reduces  the  labor  because  hand  pumping  is  not  required,  but 
efficient  hand-power  water  systems  are  to  be  recommended  for 
the  average  home  when  cost  has  to  be  considered. 

Heating  systems.  —  Because  of  the  drudgery  it  would  save 
and  the  comfort  it  would  give,  a  heating  system  is  probably 
next  in  importance  to  a  water  supply.  Many  farm  women  must 
carry  into  the  house  fuel  to  feed  several  stoves  when  heat  is 
needed,  and  must  carry  out  the  ashes,  and  clean  up  the  dirt 
caused  by  these  stoves  in  various  rooms  of  the  house.  This 
condition  could  be  greatly  improved  by  some  type  of  modern 
heating  plant  which  would  keep  the  whole  house  usable  during 
the  winter  with  a  minimum  amount  of  labor,  and  it  would  add 
much  to  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  whole  family. 

i .  The  hot  air  heating  plant  is  similar  in  principle  to  a  jacketed 
stove  except  it  is  usually  put  in  the  cellar  and  the  warm  air  is 
distributed  by  pipes.  The  stove  part  has  its  fire  box,  smoke  flue, 
ash  pit,  and  draft,  and  the  mechanism  of  this  part,  so  far  as  the 
fire  is  concerned,  is  not  affected  by  the  air  chamber.  The  front 
of  the  stove  forms  the  outside  of  a  part  of  the  air  chamber,  which 
is  made  of  brick,  iron,  or  galvanized  iron.  Near  the  bottom  of 
the  air  chamber  the  fresh-air  conduit  enters  and  admits  air  from 
out  of  doors.  This  air  is  heated  and  then  carried  through  pipes 
to  registers  in  the  various  rooms  of  the  house.  A  hot  air  fur- 
nace has  these  advantages:  (i)  It  gives  quick  heat.  (2)  It 
gives  moist  air  when  a  special  apparatus  for  furnishing  water 
for  evaporation  is  installed.  (3)  It  is  cheapest  to  install.  The 
disadvantages  of  such  a  furnace  are :  (i)  The  rooms  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  the  house  are  hard  to  heat.  (2)  The  pipes  take  up 
a  great  deal  of  room  in  the  basement.  (3)  There  is  the  possibility 
of  escaping  coal  gas.  (4)  Dust  may  be  drawn  into  the  air  chamber 
and  scattered  through  the  house.  This  type  of  heating  plant 
is  best  suited  to  a  small  compact  house.  For  heating  the  small 


FARM  HOME   CONVENIENCES  265 

house,  however,  the  pipeless  furnace  is  now  becoming  popular 
chiefly  because,  of  the  low  cost  of  equipment  and  installa- 
tion. 

2.  Steam  heat  is  best  for  large  houses  and  buildings,  but  is  not 
satisfactory  for  the  average  home.     No  heat  at  all  is  given  to 
the  radiators  unless  the  water  is  kept  at  boiling  point  or  above. 
The  temperature  is  too  high  while  circulation  continues,  .and 
circulation  stops  as  soon  as  the  fire  goes  down ;  so  such  a  system 
is  never  suitable  for  mild  weather.     There  is  more  mechanism 
to  the  steam  system  than  any  other,  and  it  requires  greater  skill 
to  manage  it.     It  is  as  a  rule  more  expensive  to  operate  than  the 
hot  water  system. 

3.  Hot  water  heating  is  usually  considered  best  for  homes, 
as  the  water  in  the  radiators  can  be  heated  to  any  temperature 
up  to  boiling;   and  the  water  will  continue  to  circulate  as  long 
as  it  is  warm,  even  though  the  fire  gets  low  or  goes  out.     It  is 
much  less  affected  by  winds  than  the  hot  air  system  and  there 
is  less  danger  of  overheating  than  with  steam  heat.     The  pipes 
cannot  carry  dust  and  odors;    the  plant  is  considered  easy  to 
operate ;   and  while  the  cost  of  the  plant  is  high,  the  operating 
expense  is  low.     Some  provision  must  be  made  for  ventilation 
when  hot  water  or  steam  systems  of  heating  are  used.     A  com- 
bination of  warm  air  and  hot  water  has  the  advantage  of  ventila- 
tion and  easily  controlled  heat.     Sometimes  radiators  are  inclosed 
with  space  for  fresh  air  to  enter  at  the  bottom  and  space  for 
heated  air  to  escape  near  a  window.     Air  in  the  heated  house  is 
apt  to  be  too  dry  for  comfort  and  health.     Warm  air  will  take  up 
more  moisture  than  cold  air ;  and  in  cold  weather,  even  though 
the  air  out  of  doors  is  moist,  the  air  inside  will  be  dry  when  heated 
to  a  comfortable  temperature.     If  no  moisture  is  supplied,  it 
will  be  drawn  from  the  woodwork,  the  furniture,  and  our  bodies ; 
and  we  shall  feel  chilled  even  though  the  temperature  of  the  room 


266  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

is  raised  quite  high.     Water  to  be  evaporated  as  the  temperature 
rises  should  be  provided  in  all  parts  of  a  heated  house. 

Lighting  the  home.  —  One  of  the  most  important  farm  con- 
veniences is  a  good  lighting  system  ;  and  although  it  costs  money 
to  buy  and  install  such  systems,  they  will  pay  for  themselves 
by  the  added  convenience  and  comfort  and  by  decreasing  the 
number  of  shortsighted  children. 

1.  The  kerosene  lamp  was  a  great  improvement  over  tallow 
candles  and  dips,  but  there  is  no  excuse  for  continuing  the  use 
of  the  flat-wick  lamps  when  better  systems  of  lighting  are  avail- 
able.    The  lamp  is  objectionable  because  of  its  odor,  the  heat  it 
develops,  and  the  smoke.     It  requires  a  great  deal  of  attention 
and  consumes  much  oxygen.     The  kerosene  lamp  with  a  mantle 
costs  more  than  the  old  wick  lamp,  but  it  is  a  great  improvement 
so  far  as  lighting  is  concerned.     It  gives  more  and  better  light 
and  is  almost  odorless,  but  must  be  handled  carefully,  for  the 
mantle  is  very  fragile. 

2.  Gasoline  is  used  as  a  source  of  gas  for  lighting.     The  gaso- 
line light  is  the  cheapest  to  operate  but  is  dangerous  and  must 
be  carefully  used,  because  gasoline  continually  gives  off  inflam- 
mable vapor.     The  gasoline  portable  lamp  gives  a  fairly  good 
light,  but  should  always  be  filled  by  daylight,  and  the  supply  of 
gasoline  should  be  stored  outside  of  the  house.     Gasoline  may 
be  piped  to  the  lights  or  the  gas  may  be  piped,  but  in  any  case 
the  gasoline  lighting  plant  is  considered  dangerous  and  especially 
so  if  the  tank  is  located  inside  the  house. 

3.  Acetylene  gas  has  been  used  in  many  farm  homes  for  light- 
ing.    It  is  less  dangerous  than  gas  from  gasoline,  but  it  is  more 
expensive  to  operate  the  lighting  plant.     Calcium  carbide  is 
used  to  produce  the  gas.     It  decomposes  rapidly  when  it  comes 
in  contact  with  water,  giving  off  the  gas  called  acetylene,  which 
is  piped  to  the  light  fixtures.     It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  supply 


FARM   HOME   CONVENIENCES 


267 


of  calcium  carbide  in  air-tight,  water-tight  containers.  Care 
must  be  used  in  installing  and  using  this  type  of  plant.  The 
outdoor  plant  is  safer  than  the  kind  that  has  the  generator  indoors. 
4.  Electric  lighting  and  electric  conveniences  have  not  been 
available  for  most  people  until  recently  because  the  commercial 
generating  plant  was  the  only  important  source  of  electric  current 
for  many  years.  There  are  now  available  a  number  of  small 


FIG.  133.  —  Plant  for  generating  electricity. 

electric  generating  systems  that  are  suitable  for  supplying  the 
rural  and  farm  home  with  electric  energy  for  all  home  conven- 
iences. The  gasoline  engine  is  no  longer  necessary  in  order  to 
supply  electricity,  and  the  modern  private  electric  plant  is  small 
and  compact,  easily  operated  and  controlled.  The  farm  home 
may  now  be  as  well  lighted  as  the  city  home  and  at  a  minimum 
cost.  It  is  no  longer  necessary  to  waste  time  cleaning  lamp 


268  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

chimneys  and  filling  lamps  or  to  dp  without  adequate  light  for 
every  member  of  the  home.  The  initial  cost  of  the  modern 
electric  lighting  system -is  small  compared  to  the  convenience 
and  comfort  derived  from  it. 

A  plant  similar  to  trie .  one  in  Figure .  133  would  be  satis- 
factory for  supplying  the  average  fafm:  home  with  electricity  for 
all  ordinary  uses. 

Other  electric  conveniences.  —  When  the  private  electric 
plant  has  been  installed  much  of  the  drudgery  of  the  farm  home 
can  be  readily  eliminated,  for  there  are  on  the  market  to-day  a 
great  many  electric  conveniences  that  can  be  secured  at  moderate 
cost  and  that  will  prove  great  time  and  labor  savers  in  the  home, 
just  as  power  machines  are  time  and  labor  savers  for  the  farmer 
in  the  field  and  machine  shop.  Power  for  such  everyday  tasks 
as  sweeping,  ironing,  washing,  sewing,  and  churning  will  relieve 
the  farm  woman  and  will  give  her  time  and  energy  for  developing 
along  intellectual  and  cultural  lines,  for  the  care  and  training 
of  her  children,  and  for  the  bringing  of  progressive  ideas  into  the 
community.  These  conveniences  are  discussed  in  succeeding 
paragraphs. 

Laundry  equipment.  —  Count  the  number  of  steps  saved  and 
the  amount  of  energy  conserved  by  using  the  electric  washer  with 
wringer  attached  for  doing  just  one  week's  washing ;  then  mul- 
tiply those  figures  by  fifty-two  to  find  out  whether  it  is  worth 
while  to  provide  such  equipment,  even  though  it  involves  some 
sacrifice  to  supply  the  money.  There  are  a  large  number  of 
washing  machines  on  the  market,  but  one  of  the  best  types  is 
that  with  the  revolving  wooden  cylinder  for  holding  the  clothes. 
It  is  simple  in  construction,  easily  operated  and  does  satisfactory 
work.  Much  of  the  drudgery  of  washing  vanishes  when  perma- 
nent plumbing  is  installed,  for  the  drudgery  has  less  to  do  with 
the  washing  of  garments  and  the  removal  of  dirt  and  germs  than 


FARM  HOME   CONVENIENCES  269 

with  lifting  and  emptying  water.  It  cannot  be  urged  too  strongly 
that  the  farm-home  laundry  be  fitted  with  running  water  and 
a  drainage  system  at  least,  and  when  possible  with  washing 
machine  and  wringer.  No  investment  will  pay  better  dividends 
in  saving  of  health  and  strength. 

The  ironing  board  should  be  steady  and  of  the  right  height 
to  allow  the  worker  to  exert  pressure  with  comfort.  The  point 
of  height  must  be  kept  in  mind  as  much  in  laundry  equipment 
as  in  kitchen  equipment.  For  years  women  have  stooped  over 
sinks  and  tables  that  were  too  low,  strained  their  muscles  over 
ironing  boards  that  were  too  high,  and  stretched  for  utensils  on 
high  shelves  out  of  reach,  thus  increasing  the  strain  and  fatigue 
of  the  tasks.  The  electric  iron  saves  steps  and  energy.  It  is 
by  far  the  greatest  labor  saver  of  any  single  piece  of  laundry 
equipment. 

Equipment  for  cleaning.  —  In  the  old  methods  of  sweeping 
and  dusting,  the  work  was  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  scatter  dust 
from  one  place  to  another.  To-day  we  have  available  equip- 
ment for  new  methods  which  involve  dust  absorption  rather  than 
dust  scattering.  Instead  of  the  broom  and  feather  duster  we 
have  the  vacuum  cleaner  and  the  dustless  duster.  Every  home 
should  have  a  definite  place  for  the  important  tools  of  cleaning. 
In  the  farm  home  the  best  place  is  a  closet  on  the  back  porch  or 
at  the  head  of  the  cellar  stairs,  high  enough  to  accommodate  long- 
handled  mops  and  brushes,  and  with  floor  space  for  scrub  buckets 
and  shelves  for  bottles  and  cleaning  compounds  and  powders. 

If  there  is  a  home  electric  plant,  the  electric  sweeper  can  be 
used,  and  there  are  a  number  of  quite  satisfactory  hand  power 
cleaners  that  are  easier  to  use  than  the  broom  and  do  the  work 
much  better.  For  bare  floors  strong-handled  mops  are  best, 
but  for  carpets  and  rugs  the  vacuum  cleaner  is  most  suitable 
because  it  prevents  scattering  of  dust  and  does  the  work  more 


270 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


thoroughly  than  any  other  device.  There  is  practically  no  tool 
used  for  home  cleaning  that  cannot  be  mounted  on  a  handle,  and 
it  will  give  better  results  with  less  effort  when  so  used.  By  the 
use  of  handles  it  is  possible  to  sweep,  mop,  dust,  or  scrub  with- 
out stooping  and  with  less  effort.  The  longer  the  handle  the 
straighter  the  position  of  the  worker  and  the  easier  the  work  will 
be  done,  for  the  handle  acts  as  a  lever  for  the  exertion  of  greater 
pressure.  One  hand  is  used  chiefly  to  direct  the  handle  while 


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FIG.  134.  —  A  kitchen  arranged  as  shown  in  right-hand  plan  saves  many  steps. 

the  other  gives  the  real  force.  Even  dust  pans  have  been  placed 
on  handles.  By  modern  methods  work  can  be  made  to  serve  as 
a  valuable  exercise  that  develops  the  muscles  of  the  body,  rather 
than  a  drudgery  that  deforms  the  body  and  tires  the  muscles 
and  nerves. 

Farm  kitchen.  —  About  70  per  cent  of  the  housekeeper's  day 
is  spent  in  and  about  the  kitchen.  By  careful  planning  most 
kitchens  can  be  made  to  suit  the  special  needs  of  the  housekeeper, 
so  that  she  can  do  her  work  and  not  be  tired  and  overworked, 


FARM   HOME   CONVENIENCES  271 

but  will  have  time  and  energy  left  after  the  day's  work  is  done. 
Important  factors  in  lessening  kitchen  tasks  are : 

1.  Arrangement.     The  kitchen   should   be   well   lighted  and 
ventilated.     Windows  should  be  placed  on  at  least  two  sides  and 
be  so  arranged  that  all  working  surfaces  are  lighted  and  the  worker 
does   not  stand  in  her  own  light.     The  stove,  sink,  and  work 
tables  should  be  placed  near  each  other  so  as  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  walking  required  to  do  the  necessary  work. 

2.  Stove.     A  coal  or  wood  range  is  the  most  satisfactory  for 
a  farm  kitchen  if  there  is  no  furnace.     When  the  heating  does 
not  need  to  be  considered,  the  best  method  is  to  supply  a  cooking 
device  that  consumes  fuel  only  while  the  actual  cooking  is  in 
progress.     Stoves  using  gas,  electricity,  or  oil  are  the  best.     For 
the  farm  kitchen  the  oil  stove  is  most  widely  used  because  gas 
is  not  available  and  electricity  is  usually  too  expensive.     In 
summer  the  oil  stove  is  a  necessity  if  comfort  and  convenience 
are  considered,  for  it  greatly  reduces  the  temperature  of  the 
kitchen  and  can  be  cooled  quickly  when  the  cooking  is  finished. 

3.  Fireless  cookers  reduce  fuel  cost,  lessen  labor  and  time  and 
cook  foods  with  little  loss  of  weight.     They  make  necessary 
planning  and  forethought,  and  require  intelligence,  care,  and  some 
experience  to  get  good  results.     Some  foods  are  improved  by 
such   long   cooking   at  low   temperature.     The   fireless   cooker 
does  not  brown  food  as  well  as  an  oven  and  unless  it  is  used  often 
the  fuel  and  time  saved  do  not  justify  the  investment.     For  a 
farm  woman  who  has  tasks  out  of  doors  or  who  is  away  from  home 
frequently  it  is  a  great  help,  for  she  does  not  have  to  worry  about 
results  while  she  is  doing  other  tasks,  and  when  mealtime  comes 
the  food  is  ready  to  serve.     There  are  a  number  of  manufactured 
fireless  cookers  that  are  widely  used,  but  a  handy  man  in  the 
home  can  manufacture  one  that  will  cost  less  and  do  the  work 
as  well. 


272  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

4.  Kitchen  cabinet.     No  one  piece  of  kitchen  equipment  does 
more  to  save  time  and  energy  than  the  kitchen  cabinet.     A 
homemade  kitchen  cabinet  can  be  built  with  moderate  cost  if 
it  is  not  necessary  to  secure  outside  labor.     If  both  material 
and  labor  must  be  purchased  a  ready-made  cabinet  will  cost 
no  more  than  the  homemade  one.     When  used  with  a  high  stool, 
the  cabinet  saves  endless  steps,  for  the  worker  has  within  reach 
all  the  supplies  and  all  the  utensils  necessary  in  most  cooking  pro- 
cesses.    The  best  type  has  containers  for  flour,  sugar,  cereals,  and 
spices,  space  for  storing  utensils,  drawers  for  tea  towels  and  cloths, 
racks  for  covers,  and  adjustable  bread  board.     When  the  ex- 
pense of  a  cabinet  seems  too  great,  the  work  table  may  be 
placed  against  the  wall  and  shelves  may  be  arranged  above  it 
to  hold  supplies,  with  a  row  of  cup  hooks  for  holding  cooking 
utensils. 

5.  Work  table.     No  one  surface  can  serve   for   several   pro- 
cesses without  extra  handling  and  confusion ;  so  in  addition  to  a 
kitchen  cabinet  a  work  table  should  be  provided  to  hold  hot  dishes 
and  soiled  utensils.     This  should  have  a  top  that  is  easily  cleaned 
and  should  be  so  placed  that  steps  will  be  saved  when  working 
at  the  cabinet,  stove,  or  sink. 

6.  A  stool  of  a  proper  height  for  use  at  the  cabinet,  stove,  sink, 
or  table  and  light  enough  to  be  easily  moved  from  place  to  place 
will  save  foot  and  back  aches.     Quicker  and  better  work  can  be 
done  after  the  worker  has  acquired  the  sitting  habit.     No  abso- 
lute height  can  be  given  for  working  surfaces,  but  if  people  who 
are  to  use  the  equipment  vary  in  height  it  will  be  best  to  arrange 
them  to  suit  the  tallest  worker  and  supply  a  stool  or  platform 
upon  which  shorter  workers  may  stand. 

7.  Sink.     Too  often  in  the  past  sinks  and  tables  have  been 
too  low  for  comfort,  causing  unnecessary  bending  over  the  tasks 
and  increasing  fatigue.     Sinks  especially  are  always  installed 


FARM    HOME    CONVENIENCES 


273 


several  inches  too  low  unless  the  housewife  insists  that  the  height 
be  increased  to  34  or  36  inches.  The  sink  should  be  deep  enough 
to  give  ample  room  for  dish  washing  and  should  be  built  with 
drainboard  and  back  all  in  one  piece  and  the  drainboard  at  the 
left  if  only  one  is  provided.  The  plumbing  should  never  be 


FIG.  135.  —  A  white  enamel  kitchen  sink. 

closed  in,  because  this  furnishes  a  breeding  place  for  insects  and 
cracks  for  accumulation  of  dirt. 

Bathroom  equipment.  —  It  is  just  as  necessary  to  have  clean 
bodies  as  it  is  to  have  clean  food  and  clean  water  to  preserve 
health.  The  average  farm  home  is  a  considerable  distance  from 
doctors,  nurses,  and  hospitals ;  so  in  case  of  sickness  the  farm 
family  may  have  to  act  unaided.  How  can  one  expect  a  normal, 


274 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


healthy  family  to  exist  where  no  arrangement  is  made  for  keeping 
clean  except  the  wash  basin  and  towel  in  the  kitchen  or  back 
pantry  ? 

It  is  not  necessary  to  spend  a  great  deal  of  money  in  order  to 
have  a  convenient  place  for  keeping  clean  and  to  make  provision 
for  an  entire  bath.  No  great  amount  of  money  is  required  to 
furnish  a  clean,  attractive,  and  convenient  room,  similar  to  the 
model  bathroom  for  the  average  dwelling  shown  in  Figure  136. 


FIG.  136.  —  Model  bathroom  for  a  country  home. 

Summary.  —  It  is  evident  that  the  amount  of  money  available 
helps  to  determine  the  kind  of  equipment  that  can  be  provided 
for  lightening  work  in  the  farm  home;  but  too  often  lack  of 
knowledge  concerning  what  to  provide  and  lack  of  foresight  and 
planning  in  selecting  and  placing  equipment,  as  well  as  in  using 
it,  are  responsible  for  the  fact  that  farm  mothers  grow  old  and 
worn  out  before  their  time  and  farm  boys  and  girls  go  to  the  city 
in  search  of  conveniences  and  entertainment. 


FARM    HOME    CONVENIENCES  275 

If  the  farmer  will  buy  for  his  home  as  many  conveniences  as 
he  buys  for  doing  his  outside  work,  his  wife  will  have  time  and 
energy  for  mothering  and  entertaining  their  children,  for  creating 
the  right  home  atmosphere,  and  for  so  enriching  home  surround- 
ings that  the  children  may  gain  their  ideals  of  beauty  and  their 
tastes  from  home,  with  its  books  and  good  music,  rather  than 
from  picture  shows,  jazz  bands,  and  bright  city  streets . 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Visit  homes  containing  different  kinds  of  heating  plants  and  have 
the  parts  of  these  and  their  working  principles  explained  to  you.     Deter- 
mine as  accurately  as  possible  the  comparative  cost  of  installing  the  va- 
rious plants. 

2.  Visit  homes  that  have  electric-power  plants  and  have  the  machinery 
explained  to  you  by  the  owner;    also  the  conveniences  that  are  operated 
by  the  power. 

3.  Make  a  floor  plan  of  your  home  kitchen  and  figure   as   nearly   as 
possible  the  distance  traveled  by  a  person  preparing  some  one  food  for  the 
table.     (For  instance,  making  apple  sauce.) 

4.  Rearrange  the  equipment  in  the  above  kitchen  so  that   the  num- 
ber of  steps  required  will  be  decreased. 

5.  Plan  what  you  would  consider  a  model  farm  kitchen. 

6.  Secure  from  manufacturers    descriptive    literature    and   price    lists 
for  required  farm-home  conveniences  and  calculate  the  approximate  cost 
of  a  kitchen  you  would  consider  satisfactory. 

7.  Determine  what  are  the    commonest    home    conveniences   used   in 
homes  in  your  community :   the  most  needed  in  order  to  lighten  the  home 
work. 

What  one  could  be  supplied  at  moderate  cost  if  people  realized  the  need 
for  such  conveniences  ? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
FARM    MACHINERY 

From  hand  labor  to  the  use  of  machinery.  —  No  factor 
has  played  a  greater  part  in  the  advancement  of  farming  than  the 
use  of  machines.  For  many  centuries  farm  work  was  done  by 
hand  or  with  the  very  simplest  implements.  The  wooden  plow, 
the  scythe,  the  flail,  and  other  simple  tools  continued  in  use 
until  about  1850.  The  area  tilled  was  small.  The  working  day 
was  long.  The  output  was  small,  and  the  total  production  per 
man  was  very  limited.  But  to-day  machinery  has  revolutionized 
farm  work.  The  gang  plow,  the  self-binder,  the  cultivator,  and 
various  other  machines  assist  the  farmer  in  producing  cheaper 
food.  It  is  estimated  that  the  binder  will  do  the  work  of  25  or  30 
men ;  the  cotton  gin,  the  work  of  50  or  60  men ;  and  the  gang 
plow  is  limited  in  the  work  it  will  do  only  by  the  propelling  power 
which  draws  it.  The  use  of  machinery  has  reduced  the  cost  of 
production,  increased  yields,  shortened  the  day,  and  provided 
time  for  recreation  and  reading.  Farm  machinery  has  emanci- 
pated woman  from  hard  manual  labor,  and  has  made  the  farm  a 
much  more  agreeable  place  to  live. 

Money  invested  in  farm  machinery.  —  Money  on  farms  is 
invested  in  land,  buildings,  implements,  and  live  stock.  The 
1910  Census  showed  that  on  all  farms  in  the  United  States  70 
per  cent  of  the  capital  was  invested  in  land  ;  1 5  per  cent  in  build- 
ings; 3  per  cent  in  implements;  and  12  per  cent  in  live  stock. 
Since  land  and  live  stock  are  real  productive  capital  it  is  important 
that  the  major  portion  of  the  total  capital  should  be  invested  in 

276 


FARM   MACHINERY  277 

them.  Yet  adequate  machinery  is  essential  to  the  economic 
production  and  handling  of  farm  crops.  The  amount  of  capital 
invested  in  machinery  on  the  general  farm  ranges  from  2  to  4 
per  cent  of  the  total  capital  invested.  To  invest  much  more 
than  that  on  the  general  farm  is  a  mistake,  for  it  usually  results 
in  increasing  the  cost  of  production. 

Kinds  of  machinery  and  tools.  —  There  is  a  machine  for  every 
kind  of  farm  activity  ;  tilling,  seeding,  haying,  harvesting,  and 
other  processes.  Plows,  harrows,  weeders,  rollers,  drags,  and 
cultivators  are  tools  used  for  tilling  the  soil.  Each  tool  and  im- 
plement comprises  several  kinds.  Thus  there  are  different  kinds 
of  plows.  There  are  walking,  riding,  sulky,  gang,  and  disk  plows. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  harrows,  weeders,  and  cultivators. 

Seeding  machinery  consists  of  drills,  seeders,  and  planters  of 
various  kinds. 

There  are  harvesters  for  almost  every  kind  of  crop.  The  wheat 
harvester  and  the  wheat  header  are  indispensable  on  the  wheat 
farms  and  ranches.  The  corn  harvester  a-nd  the  potato  digger 
are  labor  saving  machines. 

Haying  machinery  consists  of  mowers,  rakes,  tedders,  loaders 
and  track,  and  hayforks. 

Other  machines,  besides  those  mentioned  above,  are :  manure 
spreaders,  silo  fillers,  shredders,  balers,  stackers,  threshers, 
pressers,  stump  pullers,  and  engines  of  various  kinds. 

The  study  of  the  parts  of  machines  is  both  interesting  and 
profitable.  Thus  the  plow  has  the  following  parts :  moldboard, 
share,  landside,  beam,  handles,  clevis,  and  frog. 

There  are  perhaps  fifty  or  more  small  tools  used  on  the  farm. 
Cutting  tools  include  knives,  shears,  saws,  chisels,  axes,  hatchets, 
and  others.  There  are  some  tools  used  to  increase  power  or  to 
secure  mechanical  advantage.  The  lever,  the  pulley,  the  block 
and  tackle,  and  the  wedge  are  all  used  to  secure  mechanical 


278 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


advantage.  Thus  a  block  and  tackle  multiplies  the  pulling  or 
lifting  power  as  many  times  as  there  are 
strands  of  rope  minus  one.  A  man  weigh- 
ing 200  pounds  pulling  on  a  block  and  tackle 
having  5  strands  of  rope  can  lift  almost 
800  pounds.  If  there  were  no  friction,  he 
could  lift  exactly  800  pounds. 

These  machines  and  many  others  not 
named  constitute  a  part  of  the  farm  equip- 
ment and  help  much  in  making  farming 
easier  and  more  agreeable. 

Things  that  reduce  the  pull  on  machin- 
ery. —  There  is  more  horse  power  used  upon 
farms  than  all  other  power  combined. 
From  Vocational  Rehabilitation  Bulletin, 
Series  No.  36,  we  gather  the  following  data. 
Expressed  in  terms  of  horse  power  the  horses 
and  mules  used  on  farms  in  the  United  States 
furnish  15,000,000  H.P. ;  steam  tractors 
3,000,000  H.P. ;  gas  tractors  2,900,000  H.P. ;  and  gas  engines 
6,000,000  H.P.  In  all  manufacturing  establishments  there  is 
used  27,000,000  horse  power.  Graphically  the  horse  power  used 
on  farms  in  the  United  States  may  be  shown  as  follows : 

0%  15%  30%  45%  60% 


FIG.  137.  —  The  block 
and  tackle  helps  to  multiply 
man's  power. 


HORSE  &  MULE 
15JMLUOMJ.P. 

GAS  ENGINES 
6_MILLION  H.P. 

STEAM  TRACTORS 
3_M!LLiqN_H.P. 
GAS"  TRACTORS  " 
2.9  MILLION  H.P. 


GRAPH  5.  —  Horse  power  used  on  farms  in  the  United  States. 


FARM   MACHINERY  279 

The  above  data  and  graph  are  self-explanatory.  They  show 
that  the  horse,  an  animate  thing,  still  does  the  most  work  on 
farms  and  therefore  it  is  important  for  us  to  use  machinery  so 
constructed  that  it  is  easily  pulled. 

There  are  several  things  which  reduce  the  pull  on  machinery. 
High  wheels  decrease  the  draft.  High  wheels  on  wagons,  culti- 
vators, riding  implements  of  any  kind,  rollers,  disk  cultivators, 
and  disk  harrows  aid  in  reducing  the  pull.  Roller  and  ball 
bearings  serve  the  same  purpose.  A  cultivator  with  eight  shovels, 
each  two  inches  wide,  will  pull  easier  than  a  cultivator  with  four 
shovels,  each  four  inches  wide.  A  1 6-inch  plow  pulls  almost 
twice  as  hard  as  a  1 2-inch  plow.  A  shovel  with  a  very  slanting 
shape  will  pull  easier  than  one  which  plows  an  equal  depth 
but  stands  more  nearly  erect. 

A  sloping  moldboard  pulls  easier  than  one  set  more  nearly 
erect.  An  abrupt  moldboard  pulverizes  the  soil  more,  while  the 
furrow  slice  is  not  pulverized  very  much  by  a  moldboard  which 
turns  the  soil  quickly,  but  which  does  not  pitch  the  soil  so  high. 
Rolling  coulters  and  cutters  aid  materially  in  reducing  the  pull 
on  plows  used  in  turning  a  turf  soil.  It  was  found  by  J.  W.  San- 
born  at  the  Missouri  Station  that  a  plow  making  a  furrow  14.5 
inches  wide  and  5.3  inches  deep  required  a  draft  of  4.4  per  square 
inch.  But  when  a  rolling  coulter  was  used  the  draft  was  reduced 
to  3.5,  or  about  75  per  cent  of  the  draft  when  no  coulter  was 
used.  It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  lubrication  may 
reduce  the  draft  at  least  25  per  cent  in  many  instances. 

Care  of  farm  machinery.  —  The  life  of  the  average  machine 
is  about  7  or  8  years,  In  a  survey  made  at  the  University  of 
Minnesota  it  was  found  that  in  a  year's  time  harrows  depreciated 
8.72  per  cent ;  reapers  1.13  per  cent ;  mowers  7.8  per  cent ;  corn 
cultivators  7.25  per  cent;  corn  planters  7.15  per  cent;  walking 
plows  6  per  cent;  disks  5.19  per  cent;  hay  loaders  11.78  per 


280  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

cent;  manure  spreaders  11.67  Per  cent  5  threshing  outfits  12  per 
cent ;  and  corn  binders  10  per  cent.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  303 
states  that  a  corn  binder  lasts  on  the  average  8.17  years.  The 
annual  depreciation,  therefore,  is  12.2  per  cent  of  the  original 
cost. 

Complicated  machinery,  such  as  threshing  outfits,  hay  loaders, 
manure  spreaders,  corn  binders,  tractors,  and  automobiles,  de- 
preciate more  rapidly  than  do  simple  machines  such  as  plows, 
sleds,  wagons,  hay  tedders,  grain  tanks,  and  harrows. 

The  care  of  machinery  divides  itself  into  four  parts :  (i)  hous- 
ing, (2)  repairing,  (3)  painting,  and  (4)  lubrication. 

1 .  An  implement  shed  will  often  double  the  life  of  a  machine, 
while  exposure  to  all  kinds  of  weather  shortens  materially  not 
only  the  life  of  the  machine,  but  its  usefulness  as  well.     Machin- 
ery housed  in  an  implement  shed  and  oiled  well  before  it  is  put 
in  the  shed  may  be  used  efficiently  the  day  it  is  taken  out  for  use ; 
but  a  machine  which  is  rusty  gives  much  trouble,  often  results 
in  unnecessary  repairs,  and  will  not  do  efficiently  the  work  for 
which  it  is  intended.     An  implement  shed  built  high  and  dry 
pays  for  itself  in  two  or  three  years.     An  implement  shed  that 
will  house  $1000  to  $1500  worth  of  machinery  need  not  cost 
more  than  $300  or  $400.     It  should  be  built  with  a  self-support- 
ing roof,  and  the  interior  should  not  have  studdings  or  anything 
else  in  the  way. 

2.  The  care  of  machines  by  way  of  repairs  is  very  important. 
Ordinarily  repairs  should  be  made  when  needed ;    but   some 
repair  work  may  be  done  in  the  winter  months  when  other  work 
is  slack.     It  is  suggested  that  the  repair  shop  be  made  a  part 
of  the  implement  shed,  and  that  the  tools  needed  for  repair  work 
be  kept  there  also.     When  implements  are  put  into  the  shed  for 
winter  housing  they  should  be  looked  over  and  all  parts  needing 
repairs  should  be  noted  on  a  tag,  and  the  tag  should  be  tied  to  the 


FARM   MACHINERY  281 

machine  so  that  when  repair  day  comes  no  time  is  lost  in  learning 
what  parts  need  to  be  repaired. 

3.  Painting  machinery  not  only  protects  and  preserves  it  but 
improves  its  appearance  as  well.     Iron  and  steel  are  protected 
against  rust  by  paint,   and  wood  is  protected  against  decay. 
Both  wood  and  steel  remain  stronger  when  they  are  painted. 
A  good  grade  of  paint  should  be  used  in  the  painting  of  farm 
machinery. 

4.  Proper  lubrication  protects  against  wear  of  the  important 
parts  of  a  machine,  and  also  lessens  friction,  and,  therefore,  the 
pull.     Proper  lubrication  is  the  cheapest  and  easiest  way  to  keep 
machines  in  good  running  order.     The  kind  of  lubricant  used 
depends  upon  the  pressure  upon  the  part  lubricated.     For  light 
pressure  a  thin  oil  is  used ;    for  heavy  pressure  a  heavier  oil  is 
used  ;  and  for  a  wagon  heavy  grease  is  the  best  lubricant.     Self- 
oiling  boxes  on  machinery  are  both  convenient  and  efficient. 

Economical  use  of  machinery.  —  Most  farmers  have  the 
amount,  kind,  and  size  of  machinery  needed  for  their  farm  work. 
Yet  it  is  true  that  much  machinery  is  bought  every  year.  Often 
new  machines  that  soon  go  out  of  date  are  bought.  Every  ma- 
chine goes  through  a  process  of  evolution.  Tractors,  automobiles, 
milking  machines,  harvesters,  plows,  and  various  other  machines 
used  10  years  ago  have  been  superseded  and  replaced  by 
improved  machinery. 

The  well-to-do  farmer  may  buy  such  machinery  as  he  needs, 
but  the  renter  and  the  average  farmer  may  often  purchase  at  a 
bargain  at  public  sales  good  useful  machinery  at  a  low  price. 
In  estimating  the  cost  of  machines,  depreciation,  repairs,  cost 
of  housing,  interest  on  money  invested,  taxes,  and  oil  should  be 
included.  Since  often  a  secondhand  machine  may  be  purchased 
at  a  low  price,  it  is  evident  that  the  depreciation,  interest,  and 
tax  are  less  than  on  high-priced  new  machines.  The  total  cost 


282  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

of  farm  machinery  on  a  farm  should  be  kept  within  reasonable 
limits. 

Sometimes  a  machine  is  bought  for  a  small  farm  where  the 
number  of  acres  upon  which  it  is  used  does  not  justify  the  pur- 
chase of  an  expensive  machine.  For  illustration,  if  a  tractor  costs 
$1000  and  can  be  used  only  on  25  acres,  its  purchase  is  not 
justifiable.  The  life  of  the  tractor  is  8  years;  therefore,  the 
annual  depreciation  is  $125.  The  interest  on  $1000  at  6  per  cent 
is  $60.  The  amount  of  depreciation  and  interest,  or  $185, 
charged  against  25  acres,  makes  an  acreage  charge  of  $7.40. 
This  is  a  prohibitive  overhead  charge  against  the  land,  and  hence 
a  $1000  tractor  should  not  be  purchased  where  it  can  be  utilized 
on  only  25  acres.  Likewise  large  drills,  harvesters,  plows,  and 
harrows  should  not  be  purchased  unless  the  acreage  on  which 
they  can  be  used  justifies  their  purchase. 

Neighborhood  ownership  of  machines.  —  Expensive  machines 
that  are  used  only  a  few  days  in  the  year  may  often  be  purchased 
and  used  by  the  farmers  of  an  entire  neighborhood.  Thus, 
wheat  drills,  self-binders,  silage  cutters,  shredders,  corn  binders, 
gasoline  engines,  motor  trucks,  and  other  expensive  implements 
may  be  purchased  and  used  by  several  farmers  jointly.  This 
reduces  the  cost  of  the  machine  per  acre  on  which  it  is  used,  and 
lowers  the  pro  rata  depreciation,  interests,  housing,  repairs,  and 
other  fixed  charges.  A  large  farm  containing  200  acres  of  tillable 
soil  will  often  justify  the  purchase  of  machines  which  cannot 
profitably  be  purchased  on  a  loo-acre  farm.  But  two  farmers 
each  having  100  acres  may  purchase  as  much  machinery  as  one 
farmer  having  a  2oo-acre  farm.  And  five  farmers,  each  having 
40  acres,  need  more  machinery  than  one  farmer  having  200  acres. 
The  farmers  having  small  farms  may  purchase  together  for 
neighborhood  use  several  machines  which  can  not  be  justifiably 
purchased  by  one  farmer. 


FARM   MACHINERY  283 

Summary.  —  The  proper  investment  in  and  use  of  machinery 
is  one  important  factor  in  economic  production  of  farm  crops. 
Every  effort  should  be  made  to  purchase  and  use  only  such  ma- 
chinery as  pulls  easily  and  does  its  work  well.  Care  of  machinery 
consists  of  housing,  repairing,  painting,  and  lubrication.  The 
amount,  size,  and  kind  of  machinery  purchased  and  used  affect 
the  economic  production  of  farm  crops.  The  question  which 
should  be  asked  in  the  purchase,  use,  and  care  of  machinery  is : 
Will  it  pay? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Go  to  some  farm  and  study  the  plan  and  method  used  in  housing 
the  machinery.     Draw  the  plan  of  the  implement  shed  and  comment  on 
its  arrangement.     Can  it  be  improved?    If  so,  how? 

2.  Go  to  some  farm  and  study  the  different  kinds  of  plows  and  their 
parts.     Observe  the  size  of  wheels,  and  kind  of  moldboard  used.     Will 
they  tend  to  increase  or  reduce  the  draft  ? 

3.  In  a  survey  of  the  entire  school  district  itemize  the  kind,  amount, 
and  value  of  the  machinery  in  use.     List  the  machinery  as:  (a)  tillage, 
(6)  seeding,  (c)  hauling,  (d)  haying,  (e)  harvesting,  (/)  workshop  tools,  (g) 
miscellaneous  tools. 

4.  Discuss  the  block  and  tackle  when  used  in  (i)  lifting  animals  at 
butchering  time,  (2)  in  pulling  stumps,  and  (3)  in  moving  houses. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
SOME   ESSENTIAL   MACHINES 

Study  of  machinery.  —  Every  farm  should  be  equipped  with 
such  machinery  and  tools  as  will  aid  efficient  and  economic 
production.  To  this  end  the  farmer  should  endeavor  to  become 
acquainted  with  various  makes  of  the  most  essential  machines 
and  their  important  differences.  He  should  study  new  inventions 
as  to  their  adaptability  to  his  farm  and  the  work  that  he  wishes 
to  carry  on.  He  will  also  find  it  an  advantage  as  well  as  a  source 
of  interest  to  know  the  story  of  progress  in  various  kinds  of  farm 
machinery. 

This  chapter  introduces  such  a  study  with  a  brief  history  of 
one  essential  implement,  the  plow ;  and  with  the  claims  of  three 
rather  new  machines,  —  the  tractor,  the  gasoline  engine,  and  the 
milking  machine. 

Plow.  —  This  implement  is  simple  in  construction,  yet  its 
evolution  extends  from  prehistoric  times  to  our  own  day.  The 
first  plow  was  nothing  other  than  a  crooked  stick.  Throughout 
the  Middle  Ages  and  up  to  the  middle  of  the  igth  century  little 
improvement  was  made  in  plows.  Joseph  Foljamb  and  Jethro 
Tull  patented  a  plow  in  1730.  Thomas  Jefferson,  in  1798, 
and  James  Small,  in  1802,  were  the  first  to  discuss  along  mathe- 
matical lines  the  correct  shape  of  the  moldboard.  The  modern 
type  of  plow  was  patented  by  Jethro  Wood  in  1819.  His  plow 
had  three  distinct  parts:  moldboard,  share,  and  landside.  He 
made  a  plow  of  three  parts  so  that  repairs  could  easily  be  made. 
Plows  up  to  this  time  were  made  of  cast  iron.  John  Lane  and 
John  Deere,  in  1837,  substituted  steel  for  cast  iron.  Daniel 

284 


SOME  ESSENTIAL  MACHINES 


285 


Webster  designed  and  helped  to  build  a  plow  in  1836.     It  is 
represented  in  Fig.  138. 


FIG.  138.  —  Daniel  Webster's  plow. 

The  sulky  plow  was  patented  by  H.  Brown  in  1844,  but  it  was 
not  improved  so  that  it  was  practical  until  1864.  The  disk  plow 
was  invented  by  M.  A.  Cravath  and  J.  M.  Cravath  of  Blooming- 


1.  Share. 

2.  Moldboard. 


FIG.  139.  —  Parts  of  a  plow  : 
3.  Landside.  5.  Brace. 


4.  Frog. 


6.  Beam. 


7.  Clevis. 

8.  Handle. 


ton,  111.  The  idea  of  the  use  of  engines  for  plowing  and  pulling 
machinery  seems  to  have  originated  with  David  Ramsey  and 
Thomas  Wildgosse  in  1618.  But  the  practical  use  of  motors  in 
connection  with  pulling  machinery  dates  from  the  invention  of 


286 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


Fowler,  assisted  by  Smith,  in  1854.  The  shape  of  the  mold- 
board,  the  width  of  the  share  of  the  plow,  and  the  smoothness 
of  the  plowshare  and  moldboard  affect  the  draft  of  the  plow. 

The  parts  of  the  ordinary  walking  plow  are  shown  in  Fig.  139. 

The  plow  is  the  first  essential  tool  in  the  process  of  crop  produc- 
tion. It  is  used  to :  (i)  invert  and  pulverize  the  soil,  (2)  turn  under 
organic  matter,  (3)  promote  nitrification,  (4)  aid  in  liberating 
plant  foods,  and  (5)  prepare  a  good  seed  bed. 


OPERATIONS      0% 


PERCENTAGE  OF  OWNERS 
25%  50% 


75%         100% 


PLOWING 
DISKING 
SAWING  WOOD 
HARROWING 
GRINDING  FEED 

HARVESTING 
THRESHING 
SHELLING  CORN 
CUTTING  SILAGE 
LOADING  HAY 
SHREDDING  CORN 
SEEDING 
PULLING  STUMPS 

GRAPH  6.  —  How  191  corn  belt  fanners  used  the  tractor. 

Tractor.  —  a.  Its  advantages.  The  tractor  has  several  ad- 
vantages. 

i.  It  can  do  heavy  work  and  do  it  quickly  during  the  proper 
season.  This  is  probably  the  greatest  advantage  of  the  tractor. 


SOME  ESSENTIAL   MACHINES  287 

Thus  wheat  ground  may  be  prepared  during  the  hottest  weather, 
when  horses  are  almost  unable  to  do  the  work. 

2.  It  saves  man  labor  and  does  away  with  hired  help  to  a 
certain  extent. 

3.  It  can  do  heavy  work  better.     Soil  may  be  plowed  deeper 
and  hard  soil  may  be  plowed  with  the  tractor  to  advantage. 

4.  It  may  be  used  for  belt  power.     Tractors  are  used  for  a 
wide  range  of  operations.     On  191  corn  belt  farms,  tractors  were 
used  as  shown  in  Graph  6. 

Seldom  do  farmers  say  that  the  tractor  has  an  advantage  in 
displacing  horses  in  doing  work  at  night  and  in  doing  work 
more  economically. 

b.  Its  disadvantages.  Although  this  machine  has  only  passed 
the  experimental  stage  recently,  the  disadvantages  which 
farmers  most  frequently  attribute  to  it  are : 

1.  It  packs  the  moist  soil,  and  therefore  the  tractor  cannot 
be  used  until  the  surface  soil  is  quite  dry. 

2.  It  is  difficult  to  get  efficient  operators.     Inefficient  operators 
have  a  good  many  breakdowns  and  are  unable  to  get  the  best 
work  from  the  tractor. 

3.  It  is  uneconomic  on  rough  land.     The  factor  cannot  be 
well  used  on  hilly,  stumpy,  or  stony  ground. 

4.  It  is  unsuitable  for  small  fields.     Expense  in  operation  is 
very  much  increased  by  using  the  tractor  on  small  fields. 

Horses  are  not  displaced  as  much  by  tractors  as  was  originally 
thought.  On  252  farms  where  tractors  were  used,  the  total 
horses  used  before  the  tractors  were  purchased  was  1321 ;  while 
after  the  purchase  of  tractors  there  were  in  use  on  these  252 
farms  1018  horses.  This  was  a  reduction  of  303  horses,  or  a 
displacement  of  1.2  horses  per  tractor. 

The  use  of  the  tractor  has  not  materially  increased  crop  yields 
per  acre.  Although  various  bulletins  state  that  with  the  tractor 


288  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

the  soil  was  plowed  i^  to  2  inches  deeper,  yet  the  increase  in 
yield  was  negligible.  Timeliness  of  plowing  probably  had  a 
greater  effect  upon  the  yield  than  did  deep  plowing  or  superior 
quality  of  plowing. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  1004  states :  "  Judging  by  the  experi- 
ence of  tractor  users  it  is  not  safe  to  expect  any  material  reduction 
in  the  cost  of  farm  operations  per  acre  through  the  use  of  the 
tractor,  but  it  is  safe  to  expect  to  be  able  to  increase  the  crop 
acreage  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  amount  of  crops  which  one  man  can  raise." 

Tractors  may  be  and  are  used  to  quite  an  extent  for  custom 
work.  Small  farms  that  do  not  economically  justify  the  tractors 
may  have  some  of  their  work  done  by  a  tractor  owned  by  a  neigh- 
bor. This  practice,  if  convenient  to  both  parties,  reduces  the 
cost  of  operating  the  tractor  to  both  parties. 

Size  of  tractor  to  use.  —  Surveys  show  that  many  farms  are 
not  large  enough  to  furnish  economical  employment  for  the 
machinery  they  possess.  It  was  found  in  a  survey  of  200  Illinois 
tractor  users,  that  the  minimum  farm  on  which  tractors  could 
be  economically  operated  was  as  follows : 

MINIMUM  ACREAGES  ON  WHICH  TRACTORS  ARE  PROFITABLE 


SIZE  OF  TRACTOR  l 

200  TRACTOR  OWNERS'  ESTIMATES  ON  MINIMUM  SIZE  OF 
FARM  ON  WHICH  TRACTORS  ARE  PROFITABLE 

2  -plow 

140  acres 

3-nlow     , 

200  acres 

4-nlow 

250  acres 

5-plow    

320  acres 

Again  the  200  Illinois  farmers  who  used  tractors  had  farms 
with  an  average  acreage  as  indicated  in  the  following  table  and 
used  upon  these  farms  tractors  of  the  size  shown  in  the  table. 

1  Size  of  tractor  refers  to  number  of  1 4-inch  plows  pulled. 


SOME   ESSENTIAL   MACHINES  289 

AVERAGE  ACREAGE  OF  200  FARMS  ON  WHICH  TRACTORS  OF  DIFFERENT 
SIZES  ARE  BEING  USED 


SIZE  OF  TRACTOR 

AVERAGE  ACREAGE 

PER  FARM 

2  -plow       ." 

27O 

7-nlow 

HO 

4-plow      .      .     .      .     .  ;  '  v 
f  -plow 

365 

4.20 

Thus  the  table  shows  that  a  2-plow  tractor  was  in  use  on  farms 
which  averaged  270  acres.  This  does  not  mean  that  tractors 
were  not  in  use  on  smaller  farms,  for  they  were  in  use  on  farms 
of  various  sizes. 

Cost  of  operating  tractors.  --  The  cost  of  operating  a  tractor 
consists  of  at  least  five  things:  (i)  interest  on  money  invested, 
(2)  depreciation,  (3)  repairs,  (4)  cost  of  man  labor,  and  (5)  fuel, 
oil,  and  grease. 

1.  If  a  2-plow  tractor  costs  $1000,  and  the  rate  of  interest  is 
6  per  cent,  then  the  interest  charge  is  $60  per  year. 

2.  The  life  of  the  average  tractor  is  about  8  years.     Then  the 
depreciation  of  a  tractor  costing  $1000  is  $125  per  year. 

3.  Repairs  of  tractors  vary  a  great  deal  under  different  con- 
ditions, and  therefore  any  statement  made  here  must  of  necessity 
be  very  general.     The  average  repair  bill  for  158  owners  having 
tractors  of  an  average  age  of  20  months  was  $39.     For  34  tractors 
having  an  age  of  32  months,  the  average  repairs  amounted  to 
$79.     In  fact,  the  average  cost  per  year  for  repairs  over  the 
entire  life  of  the  tractor  is  about  4  per  cent  of  the  original  pur- 
chasing price  of  the  tractor.     The  repair  cost  per  year  then  on  a 
tractor  costing  $1000  is  $40  per  year  on  the  average.     The 
repair  cost  is  negligible  the  first  year,  but  after  three  or  four 
years  it  is  quite  large. 


290 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


4.  The  cost  of  man  labor  is  also  an  important  item  in  running 
a  tractor.     The  price  paid  for  man  labor  varies  a  great  deal.     It 
will  average  close  to  $3.50  a  day;    and  skilled  labor,  which  is 
usually  the  cheapest  in  the  long  run,  costs  more.     Since  the 
tractor  is  used  on  the  average  about  50  days  per  year  it  is  evident 
that  the  cost"  for  man  labor  will  be  near  $175  per  year. 

5.  The  fuel  required  for  plowing  an  acre  is  about  3^  gallons 
either  of  gasoline  or  kerosene.     This  figure  does  not  vary  for 
different-sized  outfits,  so  long  as  each  pulls  a  normal  load.     The 
amount  of  fuel  used  per  acre  plowed  varies  a  good  deal  under 
different  conditions.     Kind  of  soil,  depth  of  plowing,  and  con- 
dition of  the  ground  for  traction  power  vary  greatly,  and  there- 
fore the  above  figure  is  a  very  general  one.     The  amount  of 
lubricating  oil  and  grease  used  also  varies  widely. 

The  total  cost  of  plowing  an  acre,  according  to  the  best  data 
available,  is  as  follows :   (Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  1004.) 

APPROXIMATE  COST  OF  PLOWING  AN  ACRE  WITH  2-  AND  3 -PLOW  TRACTORS. 
BASED  ON  AVERAGE  COST  OF  $775  AND  $1050,  RESPECTIVELY,  AND  A 
LIFE  OF  8|  YEARS  OF  54  WORKING  DAYS  PER  YEAR 


SIZE  OF 
TRACTOR 

GASOLINE 

OIL 

GREASE 

REPAIRS 

DEPRECIA- 
TION 

MAN 
LABOR 

INTEREST 

TOTAL 
COST 

2  -plow 

$0.87^ 

$0.10 

$0.02 

$O.I2f 

$0.37! 

$0.67 

$0.09^ 

$2.26 

3  -plow 

0.87! 

O.IO 

O.O2 

0.12^ 

0-36f 

0.48 

O.OQi 

2.06 

The  table  shows  that  it  cost  $2.26  to  plow  an  acre  with  a  2-plow 
tractor  ;  and  $2.06  with  a  3-plow  tractor. 

Gasoline  engine.  —  This  engine  does  all  kinds  of  work  on 
the  farm  and  does  it  at  a  low  cost.  The  gasoline  engine  is  a 
great  convenience  and  a  great  labor-saving  machine.  It  will 
grind  the  corn  and  oats  and  chop  alfalfa  or  other  roughages  into 
a  fine  meal  so  that  the  hog,  the  cow,  or  the  fowl  can  eat  these 


SOME  ESSENTIAL   MACHINES  291 

feeds  with  ease.  It  will  pump  fresh  water  for  the  cattle  or  horses. 
It  will  furnish  the  motive  power  to  saw  the  winter  wood.  It 
will  turn  the  shaft  which  runs  the  cream  separator  or  produce 
the  vacuum  which  extracts  the  milk  from  the  cow.  It  may  run 
the  power  sprayer  which  is  used  to  spray  orchards,  vegetables, 
and  flowers.  It  may  be  used  to  store  or  charge  the  storage 
battery  which  lights  the  house.  All  of  these  operations  are 


Courtesy  International  Harvester  Co. 
FIG.  140.  —  The  gasoline  engine  will  do  all  sorts  of  work  at  a  low  cost. 

common  jobs  on  the  farm.  They  require  power,  some  of  them 
more  than  the  average  worker  can  give,  and  a  great  deal  more 
than  any  one  likes  to  exert.  However,  the  gas  engine  does  them 
easily,  more  quickly,  and  at  a  considerable  saving,  for  it  often 
replaces  a  farm  hand  at  a  small  fraction  of  his  wages.  The  farm 
conveniences  are  hardly  complete  until  the  gasoline  engine  is 
installed. 
The  gasoline  engine  may  be  placed  on  a  solid  stationary  plat- 


2Q2 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


form  and  the  shafting  and  pulleys  so  arranged  that  it  may  be 
used  to  do  various  kinds  of  work,  or  it  may  be  mounted  on  a 
wagon  and  hauled  to  different  places,  and  be  made  to  do  even  a 
greater  variety  of  work. 

Milking  machine.  —  a.  Advantages  of  the  milking  machine. 
The  milking  machine  has  these  advantages:  (i)  It  saves  labor. 
(2)  Under  sanitary  conditions  it  prevents  milk  from  contamina- 
tion. (3)  Most  cows  prefer  to  be  milked  by  mechanical  milkers. 


Courtesy  of  Perfection  Mamif a  during  Co. 
FIG.  141.  —  Milking  machine  in  operation. 

1.  The  milking  machine  saves  time  and  labor.     About  15  cows 
may  be  milked  with  a  double-unit  machine  in  an  hour.     The  labor 
of  one  man  may  be  saved  when  25  to  35  cows  are  to  be  milked. 

2.  Under  sanitary  conditions  clean  milk  can  be  produced  with 
the  mechanical  milker.     No  dust  or  filth  can  get  into  the  milk 


SOME  ESSENTIAL   MACHINES  293 

when  the  milking  machine  is  used,  because  the  milk  is  not  exposed 
to  the  air  during  the  milking.  It  is  conveyed  directly  into  an 
air-tight  vessel  through  vacuum  tubes.  Any  contamination 
will  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  milking  machines  and  vessels 
are  not  thoroughly  cleaned. 

3.  Most  cows  prefer  to  be  milked  by  mechanical  milkers. 
The  mechanical  milker  more  nearly  approaches  the  natural  suck- 
ing of  the  calf  than  does  milking  by  hand.  The  uniform  pull  and 
the  regular,  pulsating  action  of  the  milking  machine  are  quite 
agreeable  to  the  cow  ;  while  the  rough  hands  of  some  milkers  are 
not  agreeable.  Nervous  cows  may  become  excited  when  they 
are  first  milked  with  the  mechanical  milker.  But  the  average 
cow,  when  treated  properly,  soon  becomes  accustomed  to  the 
milking  machine. 

b.  Success  with  milking  machine.  There  are  three  factors 
worthy  of  discussion  in  considering  the  successful  operation 
of  the  milking  machine.  These  are:  (i)  the  operator,  (2)  the 
machine,  and  (3)  the  cow. 

1.  Some   men   succeed   at   almost   anything    they   attempt; 
others  fail  equally  as  often  at  anything  they  attempt.     The 
author  knows  more  than  one  dairyman  who  has  bought  a  milk- 
ing machine,  tried  it  for  a  few  months,  and  then  decided  that  it 
was  a  failure.     He  sold  his  machine  to  some  other  dairyman  who 
was  successful  in  operating  it.     This  clearly  shows  that  the  fault 
was  not  with  the  machine  but  with  the  man.     Some  men  are 
by  nature  adepts  at  handling  machinery  and  animals.     The 
man  acts  as  a  governor  on  an  engine ;  he  must  combine  and  cor- 
relate the  machine  and  the  cow,  and  if  the  machine  is  to  do  its 
best  work,  it  must  be  used  with  skill,  patience,  and  sympathy 
for  the  cows. 

2.  The  machine  itself  should  be  properly  adjusted  so  that  no 
discomfort  will  be  produced.     The  teat  cups  should  fit  the  teats, 


294  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

and  the  pulsations  of  the  machine  should  be  adjusted  to  suit 
the  cow.  The  pulsation  should  be  slower  with  cows  that  have 
long  teats,  and  cows  that  are  hard  to  milk.  On  the  other 
hand  when  cows  have  short  teats  and  when  they  release  their 
milk  easily  and  rapidly,  the  pulsations  of  the  machine  may  be 
more  rapid.  The  pulsations  may  sometimes  run  as  high  as  80 
a  minute,  and  yet  no  milk  be  drawn,  because  there  is  not  the 
regular  sucking  action  necessary  to  draw  the  milk  ;  but  if  proper 
adjustment  is  made,  good  results  will  be  secured. 

3.  Cows  that  are  hard  to  milk  by  hand  are  also  hard  to  milk 
with  a  madiine.  Nervous,  excitable  cows,  cows  that  are  natu- 
rally hard  to  milk,  and  those  with  poorly  shaped  udders  and 
teats  are  difficult  to  milk.  About  75  per  cent  of  the  cows  of  the 
average  herd  may  be  successfully  milked  with  the  milking 
machine. 

Milk  cannot  be  extracted  from  the  udder.  If  milking  were 
only  a  matter  of  extracting  milk,  then  any  machine  with  suffi- 
cient power  could  force  the  milk  from  the  udder,  and  the  mechan- 
ical milker  would  invariably  be  successful.  The  adaptability 
of  the  machine  in  drawing  milk  is  certainly  great.  But  the  cow 
is  an  animate  thing ;  and  hence  the  moods  and  the  temperaments 
of  cows  present  a  much  wider  range  than  does  the  adaptability 
of  the  milking  machine. 

In  using  the  milking  machine  three  things  must  be  understood 
relative  to  the  production,  release,  and  extraction  of  the  milk. 
These  are :  (a)  that  the  milk  must  be  secreted,  (b)  that  the  cow 
must  release  the  milk,  and  (c)  that  the  milk  can  be  extracted 
only  after  these  two  processes  have  been  completed.  The  illus- 
tration (Fig.  142)  will  assist  the  dairyman  to  form  a  mental 
picture  of  where  the  milk  is  secreted  and  where  it  is  released. 

About  half  of  the  milk  produced  by  the  cow  is  manufactured 
during  the  process  of  milking.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  milk 


o 


296  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

is  secreted  and  released  depends  upon  the  temperament  of  the 
cow.  Cows  when  frightened  give  down  their  milk  slowly.  Some 
cows  naturally  secrete  and  release  their  milk  slowly.  Not  only 
is  the  teat  held  closed  by  a  sphincter  muscle,  but  also  each  milk 
duct  leading  to  a  vacuole  where  the  milk  is  manufactured  is 
held  closed  by  a  muscle.  These  muscles  are  under  the  volun- 
tary control  of  the  cow.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  release  of 
milk  is  under  the  control  of  the  cow,  and  that  the  milking  machine 
must  be  adjusted  as  nearly  as  possible  to  each  cow. 

The  following  suggestions  may  be  helpful  in  making  milking 
by  machine  successful:  (i)  The  udder  should  be  weil  massaged 
before  the  milk  cups  of  the  machine  are  put  on.  There  should 
be  no  hurry  ;  but  the  cow  should  be  well  prepared  for  the  machine. 
(2)  The  best  time  to  begin  the  use  of  the  milking  machine  is  at 
the  beginning  of  the  period  of  lactation.  However,  some  cows 
respond  to  the  milking  machine  at  any  time  during  the  period 
of  lactation.  (3)  The  cow  is  to  be  considered,  and  such  cows 
should  be  selected  and  bred  as  are  in  every  way  adapted  to  the 
mechanical  milker.  The  use  of  sires  that  produce  the  right  kind 
of  cow  is  important.  C.  Larson,  of  the  South  Dakota  Station, 
says  concerning  cows  adapted  to  the  use  of  machines :  "  They 
should  have  the  right  temperament,  give  a  large  flow  of  milk, 
give  down  their  milk  readily  and  quickly,  have  symmetrical 
udders  and  teats  of  proper  size  and  well-placed."  (4)  The 
milking  machine  must  be  followed  by  hand  stripping. 

Cleaning  the  milking  machine.  —  Keeping  the  milking  ma- 
chine clean  is  no  more  difficult  than  keeping  a  separator  clean. 
The  method  used  in  cleaning  milking  utensils  may  be  used  in 
cleaning  the  milking  machine.  First,  all  parts  should  be  rinsed 
in  lukewarm  water,  but  not  in  hot  water,  for  hot  water  causes 
the  casein  of  the  milk  to  coagulate  and  stick  to  the  tubes.  After 
this  the  following  suggestions  may  be  used : 


SOME   ESSENTIAL   MACHINES  297 

1.  If  a  vacuum  pipe  extends  into  the  milk  house,  the  milk  cups 
may  be  dipped  into  a  tub  of  lukewarm  water  and  this  water  may 
then  be  pumped  through  the  tubes.     The  cups  may  then  be  put 
into  another  vessel  of  clean  rinsing-water  and  cleansed  again 
in  the  same  way.     This  is  sufficient  for  the  night  cleaning.     Dur- 
ing the  night,  the  parts  of  the  machine  may  be  put  into  a  solution 
of  either  lime  or  salt. 

2.  After  milking  in  the  morning,  the  machine  maybe  cleaned 
as  indicated  and,  in  addition,  thoroughly  washed  in  lukewarm 
water   containing   a   washing-powder.     Special   brushes   should 
be  provided,  and  every  part  of  the  machine  given  a  thorough 
scrubbing.     Then  every  part  should  be  rinsed  in  water  and  put 
for  the  day  into  lime  water  or  salt  water. 

3.  The  two  following  washes  have  been  found  to  be  excellent 
and  economical  in  the  prevention  of  the  multiplication  of  bacteria 
in  milk :   (i)  a  solution  made  by  putting  i^  to  2  pounds  of  pow- 
dered lime  into  about  12  gallons  of  clean  water,  (2)  a  solution 
made  by  putting  10  pounds  of  salt  into  n  gallons  of  water. 
Each  of  these  solutions  should  be  renewed  about  once  a  week. 

If  these  general  suggestions  in  cleaning  the  milking  machine 
are  carefully  observed,  milk  may  be  produced  with  a  bacterial 
count  lower  than  that  which  is  produced  under  average  con- 
ditions in  places  where  cows  are  milked  by 'hand. 

Some  of  the  standard  milking  machines  on  the  market  are, 
the  Perfection,  Hinman,  Sharpless,  National,  Nuway,  Pine  Tree, 
Empire,  Universal,  Burrel-Lawrence-Kennedy,  Official,  and  De 
Laval.  New  makes  of  milking  machines  assist  in  improving  all 
mechanical  milkers.  The  milking  machine,  like  a  good  many 
other  things,  depends  upon  a  number  of  factors  in  order  to  be  a 
success.  A  skillful,  sympathetic  operator,  the  right  kind  of 
cow,  and  a  properly  adjusted  machine  are  the  principal  factors 
essential  for  success  in  the  management  of  a  milking  machine. 


298  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

Summary.  —  The  proper  use  of  machinery  is  important  in 
making  the  farm  a  success.  The  plow,  the  tractor,  the  gasoline 
engine,  and  the  milking  machine  have  been  discussed  in  this 
chapter.  From  other  sources,  such  as  books,  bulletins,  and 
magazines,  other  machines  may  be  studied. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Trace  the  evolution  of  the  wheat  harvester. 

2.  Discuss  the  invention  of  the  Babcock  Tester  and  its  value. 

3.  Classify  and  name  20  machines  used  on  the  farm. 

4.  Name  20  tools  used  on  the  farm. 

5.  Name  10  machines  and  conveniences  used  in  the  home. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
FARM   BUILDINGS 

Farm  home.  —  The  farmhouse  is  the  home  of  every  member 
of  the  family.  It  should  be  comfortable,  convenient,  and  health- 
ful. The  house  should  be  attractive  and  homelike  in  outside 


Courtesy  of  Purd:ie  University. 

FIG.  143.  —  A  farmstead  located  some  distance  from  the  public  road.  The  house  is 
located  on  a  higher  elevation  than  the  other  buildings  and  is  surrounded  by  a  large  lawn 
with  a  variety  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Such  a  home  adds  beauty  and  value  to  the  farm  and 
gives  satisfaction  to  its  owner. 

appearances  and  surroundings,  and  within  it  should  be  cozy, 
and  provide  ease  and  comfort.  The  picture  in  Fig.  143  shows 
a  fine  country  home  and  illustrates  what  the  surroundings  of 
a  farm  home  may  be. 

299 


300 


LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


The  picture  in  Fig.  144  is  suggestive  of  a  substantial  and 
fine  farm  home. 

The  farmhouse  should  be  located  on  well-drained  land, 
slightly  higher  than  the  site  of  the  surrounding  buildings.  A 
gentle  southeast  slope  is  most  desirable.  A  beautiful  lawn  of  blue- 
grass  and  white  clover  with  an  occasional  shade  tree  adds  much 
to  the  attractiveness  of  the  house  and  makes  it  much  more  home- 
like. Shrubbery  should  be  planted  along  the  foundation  of  the 


Courtesy  of  Purdue  University. 

FIG.  144.  —  A  farmhouse  of  neat  design.     With  a  few  more  shrubs  and  plants  this  will 
make  a  very  attractive  home. 

house,  and  some  flowering  plants  along  the  borders  and  in  front 
of  the  shrubs.  Straight  lines  should  be  avoided,  but  clumps  of 
shrubbery  add  to  the  picturesqueness  of  the  farmstead. 

Home  conveniences  are  discussed  in  another  chapter,  and  it 
will  be  time  well  spent  to  give  that  a  close  study,  for  the  install- 
ment of  the  conveniences  suggested  will  add  much  to  the  comfort 
of  the  home. 


FARM   BUILDINGS 


301 


Purpose  of  farm  buildings.  —  The  purposes  of  other  farm 
buildings  are  :  (i)  to  reduce  the  feed  cost ;  (2)  to  provide  conven- 
ience in  feeding,  handling  the  live  stock,  and  removing  the  litter ; 
(3)  to  provide  comfort  for  the  animals ;  (4)  to  provide  conditions 
conducive  to  health ;  (5)  to  provide  conditions  essential  to  the 
greatest  production  at  the  lowest  cost ;  (6)  to  provide  conditions 
so  that  a  clean  wholesome  product  may  be  produced.  Every 
barn  should  be  constructed  for  a  specific  purpose.  A  horse 
barn  is  made  for  horses;  a  dairy  barn  for  dairy  cattle,  and  a 
sheep  stable  for  sheep.  Every  barn  should  be  built  in  accordance 
with  a  prearranged  plan,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  desirable  to  plan 
the  barn  so  that  it  can  be  easily  enlarged. 

Essentials  in  constructing  farm  buildings.  —  (i)  Sufficient 
room  is  the  first  essential  in  farm 
buildings.  Buildings  should  pro- 
vide at  least  500  cubic  feet  of  air 
space  for  each  1000  pounds  of  live 
stock  housed.  A  barn  50  feet  by 
36  feet  and  7  feet  high  provides 
12,600  cubic  feet  of  air,  and  will 
house  20  dairy  cows.  The  amount 
of  room  is  dependent  upon  the 
kind  of  animal  housed,  and  upon 
the  ventilation  of  the  building. 
(2)  The  second  essential  is  dry- 
ness.  The  location  of  the  barn 
on  a  slight  elevation  will  help  to 
keep  it  dry.  If  the  foundation 
is  built  of  concrete,  coarse  gravel 
or  cinders  underneath,  it  will  help 
to  keep  the  building  dry.  Again,  gutters  on  the  eaves  to  carry 
away  the  water  which  falls  on  the  roof  will  help  in  keeping  the 


FIG.  145.  — A  window  properly  set.  It 
is  flush  with  the  inner  wall,  and  is  so  set 
that  direct  air  currents  cannot  strike  the 
animals. 


302  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

barn  dry.  (3)  A  proper  amount  of  light  is  also  an  important  es- 
sential in  building.  From  6  to  8  square  feet  of  glass  should  be 
provided  for  every  100  square  feet  of  floor  space.  Windows 
should  be  set  flush  with  the  inside  wall,  about  4^  feet  from  the 
floor  and  set  in  a  frame  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  145). 
(4)  Sanitation  is  essential  in  farm  buildings.  This  is  true  not 
only  for  the  farmhouse,  but  for  the  other  farm  buildings  as  well. 
The  bacteria  of  tuberculosis,  hog  cholera,  and  many  other  dis- 
eases harbor  in  dark  and  filthy  places.  A  good  dairy  product 
cannot  be  produced  in  an  unsanitary  barn.  The  most  important 
things  conducive  to  sanitation  are  sunlight,  drainage,  and  good 
floors.  Sunlight  is  the  greatest  of  all  natural  germ  destroyers. 
Proper  surface  drainage  and  the  use  of  tile  drainage  help  in  barn 
sanitation.  Concrete  floors  help  much  in  making  the  barn 
sanitary.  (5)  Ventilation  helps  in  making  the  barn  satisfactory. 
Proper  ventilation  is  a  means  of  improving  and  maintaining 
animal  health  and  hence  of  lowering  the  cost  of  production. 
Ventilation  has  two  purposes:  to  remove  the  foul  air,  which 
contains  carbon  dioxide,  ammonia,  and  methane ;  and  to  supply 
fresh  air,  which  contains  an  abundance  of  oxygen.  The  require- 
ments of  fresh  air  for  animals  are :  horses,  70  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  minute ;  cows,  60 ;  swine,  23 ;  sheep,  15 ;  and  chickens, 
0.5.  Proper  ventilation  often  demands  the  construction  of  a  flue 
or  flues  in  the  barn.  To  determine  the  size  of  air  shaft  needed 
in  a  flue,  Ekblaw  in  his  book  "  Farm  Structures  "  gives  the  follow- 
ing rule :  Divide  the  total  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  required 
by  300.  Thus,  12  horses  and  4  cows  would  require 
12  times  70  equals  840 
4  times  60  equals  240 
Total  1080 

This  total,  1080,  divided  by  300  gives  3.6  square  feet,  which 
is  the  cross  section  of  air  flue  for  12  horses  and  4  cows.     There- 


FARM   BUILDINGS 


303 


fore,  one  flue,  2  feet  by  2  feet,  would  give  ample  ventilation  if 
properly  installed.  But  two  flues,  —  one,  one  foot  by  two  feet, 
and  the  other,  one  foot  by  one  and  one-half  feet,  —  would  be 
better. 

The  cut  in  Fig.  146  illustrates  the  King  system  of  ventilation. 
It  is  recommended  as  being  excellent  for  barn  construction. 


\  Do m pet 


/n/etj. 
T/ue 


FIG.  146.  —  King  ventilating  system.    Flues  should  be  placed  at  the  side  of  the  barn  in 
order  that  the  flues  may  not  be  in  the  way  in  the  barn. 

The  following  observations  relative  to  flues  are  essential : 

a.  They  must  be  air-tight. 

b.  The  barn  must  be  air-tight,  otherwise  the  flues  will  not 
work. 

c.  The  flues  should  be  almost  straight  and  smooth  inside. 

d.  Small  flues  do  not  work  well. 

e.  The  flues  should  be  capped. 

/.   The  intake  flues  should  contain  at  least  10  per  cent  more 
cross-sectional  area  than  a  cross  section  of  the  outgoing  flues. 


304 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


(6)  Economy  is  important  in  constructing  farm  buildings.  Dura- 
bility and  permanence  should  not  be  sacrificed.  Spending  too 
little  is  as  bad  as  spending  too  much.  The  main  points  to  be 
combined  in  a  barn  are  utility,  strength,  sanitation,  and  economy. 
Buildings  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  surroundings,  size  of 
farm,  needs,  and  economic  production. 

Dairy  barns.  —  Dairy  barns  should  not  be  connected  with 
other  barns  or  sheds  because  milk  readily  absorbs  stable  odors. 


FIG.  147.  —  A  well-designed  dairy  barn.    The  silos  are  placed  at  the  side  of  barn  instead 

of  at  the  ends. 


Therefore,  the  dairy  barn  should  be  built  some  30  or  40  feet 
away  from  the  other  bams.  Economy  of  construction,  conven- 
ience, sufficient  room,  dryness,  ventilation,  proper  amount  of 
sunlight,  sanitation,  uniform  temperature,  and  provisions  for 
enlarging  are  essential  in  the  building  of  a  dairy  barn. 

Figure  147  shows  the  outside  view  of  a  good  dairy  barn. 

Figure  148  shows  the  floor  plan  of  a  dairy  barn  that  houses 
32  cows. 

The  two-storied  dairy  barn  is  most  commonly  found.  The 
cows  are  housed  below,  and  hay  is  put  in  the  second  story. 


FARM   BUILDINGS 


30S 


FIG.  148.  —  Floor  plan  of  a  barn  for  32  cows.     Note  the  receiving,  bottling,  washing,  and 

boiler  rooms. 

A  hay  fork,  an  ensilage  cutter,  a  litter  carrier,  a  feed  carrier, 
and  automatic  water  fountains  are  almost  indispensable  conven- 
iences in  a  dairy  barn. 

Horse  barns.  —  These  structures  are  similar  in  construction 
to  dairy  barns.  There  are  two  kinds  of  stalls :  box  stalls  and 
standing  or  slip  stalls.  Box  stalls  should  be  10  by  1 2  feet.  Every 
barn  should  have  at  least  one  box  stall.  Standing  stalls  should 
be  5  feet  wide,  and  the  total  length  should  be  14  feet,  divided  as 
follows :  2  feet  for  the  manger ;  7  feet  for  the  length  of  the  horse 
stand ;  and  5  feet  for  the  width  of  the  passageway.  The  gutter 
which  carries  the  liquid  manure  should  be  4  inches  deep  and 
1 6  inches  wide.  This  gutter  may  be  uncovered,  or  it  may  be 
covered  with  cast  iron  plates  with  holes  in  them. 

Various  kinds  of  partitions  are    used  to  separate  horses  in 


306  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

their  stalls.  Solid  partitions  are  not  recommended,  because  they 
prevent  the  circulation  of  the  air. 

The  interior  of  the  stalls  and  barn  should  be  as  free  from  pro- 
jections as  possible.  The  harness  should  be  hung  high  enough 
so  that  it  will  never  obstruct  the  passageway  for  the  caretaker 
or  the  horse.  The  manger  and  feed  boxes  should  be  so  built 
that  the  chances  for  the  horse  to  injure  itself  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

Floors  of  horse  barns  are  made  of  dirt,  concrete,  wooden  blocks, 
or  boards.  Concrete  floors  seem  to  meet  all  the  demands  best. 
The  floors  of  the  individual  stalls  should  be  covered  with  wooden 
flooring. 

The  amount  of  air  space  per  horse  should  be  about  1600  cubic 
feet.  Each  horse  should  be  provided  with  15,000  cubic  feet  of 
air  every  hour.  Therefore,  if  the  cubical  dimensions  allowed 
each  horse  are  1600  cubic  feet,  the  air  has  to  be  changed  9!  times 
each  hour.  This  may  be  secured  by  ventilation. 

Light  is  an  important  essential  in  a  horse  barn.  Therefore, 
plenty  of  windows  should  be  provided  and  placed  so  that  the 
sunshine  may  come  into  each  stall  daily.  This  means  that  the 
barn  must  be  set  north  and  south. 

Horse  stables  should  be  kept  cooler  than  cow  stables.  Horses 
work  regularly  in  the  open  air,  and  if  they  are  kept  in  warm 
stables  they  do  not  stand  the.  daily  outdoor  work  so  well. 

Barns  are  seldom  built  to  shelter  horses  alone.  Sometimes 
beef  cattle  are  housed  on  one  side  of  the  barn.  While  this  is  a 
common  practice,  yet  it  is  not  to  be  recommended.  Farm  ma- 
chinery is  often  put  into  the  general  barn.  This  practice  is 
fairly  satisfactory  if  the  machinery  is  inclosed  by  a  dust-proof 
wall.  On  some  farms  the  machinery  becomes  the  roosting  shed 
for  the  poultry.  This  is  a  very  bad  practice,  —  bad  both  for  the 
fowls  and  for  the  machinery. 


FARM   BUILDINGS 


307 


Houses  for  hogs.  —  There  are  ten  essential  points  to  consider 
in  the  construction  of  a  hog  house :  (i)  The  first  essential  is 
warmth.  Hogs  are  not  protected  against  cold  as  well  as  horses 
and  cattle  and  hence  reasonably  warm  shelters  are  required. 
This  is  true  both  for  pork  production  and  for  the  production 


FIG.  149.  —  A  fine  type  of  hog  house,  good  for  every  month  of  the  year.     Compare  the 
window  and  door  arrangement  of  this  house  with  that  shown  in  Fig.  150. 

of  early  spring  pigs.  (2)  Dryness  is  essential  to  economic  hog 
production.  Hogs  will  not  do  well  in  damp  or  wet  quarters. 
The  floor  should  be  well  drained  and  the  walls  and  the  roof  should 
be  water-tight.  (3)  Ventilation  is  also  essential  to  pork  produc- 
tion. Fresh  air,  due  to  good  ventilation,  but  not  drafts,  aids 
in  securing  the  best  and  cheapest  gains.  (4)  Sanitation  helps  in 
preventing  sickness  among  hogs.  Dusty  quarters  cause  cough- 


308  LIVE   STOCK    AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

ing  and  sneezing,  and  predispose  the  hogs  to  pneumonia.  The 
house  should  be  so  built  that  it  can  be  easily  cleaned,  and  it 
should  be  cleaned  regularly.  The  hog's  nose  is  close  to  the 
ground,  and  hence  it  must  breathe  in  the  dusty  air  which  is  likely 
to  carry  germs  into  its  lungs.  Cleanliness  is  an  absolute  essential 
to  a  good  hog  house.  (5)  Admission  of  sunlight  into  the  hog 
house  is  very  helpful  in  keeping  the  house  clean  and  sanitary. 
Every  house  should  be  so  built  that  the  morning  sunshine 
may  reach  the  entire  floor  and  remain  there  as  long  as  possible. 
(6)  Convenience  is  an  essential  in  hog-house  construction.  The 
above  house  can  be  easily  cleaned  and  easily  bedded  because 
the  sides  and  ends  are  fastened  by  hinges  and  can  be  easily  lifted 
up.  The  house  is  movable  and  that  makes  it  convenient. 
(?)  Sufficient  room  is  an  important  consideration  in  hog  houses.  A 
house  8  feet  by  i  o  feet  makes  a  good  house  for  a  sow  and  a  litter 
of  pigs.  (8)  The  initial  cost  should  not  be  too  high,  for  if  the 
cost  is  too  high,  it  is  more  difficult  to  make  it  pay.  (9)  Shade  is 
another  essential  in  hog-house  construction.  Hogs  suffer  as 
much  from  extreme  heat  as  from  extreme  cold.  Often  hogs 
die  from  heat,  and  the  protection  of  hogs  against  heat  in  the  lot 
or  in  transit  is  only  humane  treatment.  (10)  Durability  is  also 
to  be  considered  in  hog-house  construction.  Material  that  is 
fairly  permanent  should  be  used,  and  the  entire  house  should  be 
so  built  that  little  repair  will  be  needed. 

Hog  houses  are  of  two  types,  —  the  small  portable  house  and 
the  large  stationary  house.  Portable  houses  are  usually  8  by  10 
feet.  They  may  be  pulled  from  place  to  place  by  a  team  of  horses. 

The  large  stationary  house  is  about  28  feet  wide  and  any 
desired  length.  An  8-foot  alley  runs  lengthwise  through  the 
middle  of  the  building.  On  each  end  of  the  alley  are  pens  10  feet 
deep.  The  windows  are  so  placed  that  the  house  gets  a  maximum 
amount  of  sunshine  at  the  proper  place. 


FARM   BUILDINGS 


309 


Every  large  stationary  hog  house  should  have  a  place  for  the 
storage  of  feed,  and  a  platform  scale  arranged  so  that  the  hogs 
and  feed  can  be  easily  weighed. 

Sheep  barns  and  sheds.  —  Sheep  barns  should  provide  three 


FIG.  150.  —  A  good,  serviceable  hog  house.  Note  location  of  the  windows.  The  sides 
and  ends  of  the  house  are  hung  on  hinges  and  may  be  raised  as  shown  in  the  picture. 
This  makes  the  house  a  comfortable  place  for  the  hogs  in  summer. 

conditions.     They    should    be    (i)    dry,    (2)    well    ventilated, 
and  (3)  roomy. 

i.  Dryness  is  very  important  in  sheep-barn  construction  be- 
cause the  heavy  coat  of  wool,  when  it  becomes  wet,  requires  a 
week  or  ten  days  to  dry  out.  This  keeps  the  sheep  constantly 
chilled,  and  consequently  disease  makes  its  appearance.  Gains 
cannot  be  made  if  the  sheep  are  not  comfortable.  A  well-packed 
earth  floor,  slightly  elevated,  makes  a  very  good  floor,  but  it 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


must  be  so  made  that  it  is  dry  at  all  times.  From  6  to  8  square 
feet  of  window  space  for  each  100  square  feet  of  floor  space  should 
be  provided,  and  the  windows  should  be  so  placed  that  the  entire 
floor  receives  sunshine  sometime  during  the  day.  These,  com- 
bined with  proper  ventilation,  will  provide  the  dryness  which  is 
essential  in  a  sheep  barn.  The  best  wool  cannot  be  produced 
if  sheep  are  left  in  the  rain. 

2.   Proper  ventilation  is  another  requisite  of  a  sheep  barn. 
Wild  sheep  lived  on  the  mountain  tops  where  the  air  is  fresh 


/o-o 


FIG.  151.  —  A  convenient  feed  rack  for  sheep.     Both  hay  and  grain  can  be  fed  in  this  rack. 

and  pure,  and  hence  sheep  like  fresh  pure  air.  Drafts  should  be 
avoided.  The  windows  in  the  barn  should  be  left  open  the  entire 
year,  and  doors  should  be  made  so  that  the  upper  half  of  the  door 
may  be  left  open.  This  will  provide  the  necessary  ventilation. 

3.  Sufficient  room  is  the  third  essential  of  a  sheep  barn.  From 
8  to  10  square  feet  of  floor  space  should  be  provided  for  each 
sheep.  Maternity  stalls  should  be  10  feet  by  12  feet. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  311 

A  good  type  of  sheep  barn  has  an  open  shed  at  one  side 
which  provides  the  finest  shelter  from  rain  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year. 

Figure  151  shows  a  combination  hay  and  grain  rack  for  sheep. 

Sheep  barns  are  either  simple  sheds  with  no  storage  room,  or 
high  barns  in  which  feeds  may  be  stored,  or  a  combination  of  the 
two.  The  kind  to  be  built  must  be  determined  by  the  farmer 
himself.  The  final  factors  are :  the  cost  of  construction,  con- 
venience, and  the  economic  output  of  mutton  and  wool. 

Summary.  —  Barns  are  an  important  factor  in  the  economic 
production  of  farm  animals  and  their  products.  For  this  reason 
every  essential  in  barn  construction  should  be  employed.  Com- 
fort to  the  animal  spells  everything  in  barn  construction,  and  if 
comfort  is  provided  it  is  certain  that  the  factors  essential  in 
barn  construction  have  been  used.  Convenience  to  the  attend- 
ant must  be  kept  in  mind,  and  the  cost  of  construction  should 
be  kept  within  reasonable  limits.  Horse  barns,  cattle  barns, 
hog  houses,  and  sheep  stables  are  all  slightly  different  in  their 
plan,  size,  and  essentials  of  construction ;  and  therefore  each 
should  be  built  for  its  specific  purpose  and  according  to  a  pre- 
arranged plan.  The  farmer  should  determine  what  he  needs  and 
build  accordingly. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Go   to  some   well-planned  barn,  study  it  as  to  dimensions,  size  of 
stalls,  location  of  feed  bins,  and  convenience.     Draw  floor  plan  according 
to  scale  and  also  draw  the  end  view  of  the  barn. 

2.  Draw  floor  plan  of  your  house.     Re-plan  the  same  so  that  it  will 
be  more  convenient,  more  comfortable,  and  not  much  more  expensive  in 
construction. 

3.  Select  and  read  carefully   a   bulletin   which   relates  to   some   farm 
building.     Report    on:  (i)    dimensions,  (2)   size   of   stalls,    (3)   size   and 
placement  of  windows,  (4)   provision  for  ventilation,  and  (5)  convenience. 
(If  possible,  each  student  should  use  a  different  bulletin  for  this  exercise.) 


312  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

4.   Score  a  farm  building  according  to  following  score  card : 

1.  Room 10 

2.  Convenience 10 

3.  Dryness      ...,.*., 10 

4.  Ventilation 10 

5.  Sunlight 10 

6.  Economy  of  construction 10 

7.  Protection  against  heat  and  cold     .     .   .*  •;       10 

8.  Sanitation 10 

9.  Interior  fixtures 10 

10.   Repair 10 

Total      .  "^cJo 


CHAPTER  XIX 
BOYS'  AND   GIRLS'   CLUB  WORK 

Scope  and  origin.  —  Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs  are  organiza- 
tions of  young  people  between  ten  and  eighteen  years  of  age 
inclusive,  having  as  an  aim  the  study  of  some  problem  or  project 
closely  related  to  the  activities  of  the  home  and  the  farm.  The 
Smith-Lever  Act,  under  which  club  work  is  conducted,  provides 
for  "  giving  of  instruction  and  practical  demonstrations  in  agri- 
culture and  home  economics." 

Club  work  had  its  origin  in  the  South  under  the  leadership  of 
Seaman  A.  Knapp.  He  conceived  the  idea  that  agriculture  and 
home  economics  could  be  taught  most  effectively  by  means  of 
demonstrations  carried  on  by  boys  and  girls.  In  the  North  the 
work  was  first  developed  in  Iowa  under  the  leadership  of  O.  H. 
Benson  and  Jessie  Field,  two  county  school  superintendents. 

Purposes.  —  The  aims  of  club  work  are  to  enlist  boys  and  girls 
in  profitable  and  interesting  activities,  to  teach  young  people 
to  form  habits  of  observation,  to  develop  leadership  and  coopera- 
tion by  taking  advantage  of  the  gang  spirit  of  boys  and  the  sets 
of  girls  and  direct  them  into  useful  channels,  to  inspire  in  each 
member  the  right  attitude  toward  honest  toil,  to  encourage 
members  through  organization  and  proper  leadership  to  take 
initiative  and  to  attack  problems,  to  follow  persistently  to  a 
successful  completion  a  few  well-planned  club  projects,  to  offer 
to  leaders  and  parents  an  effective  incentive  for  close  cooperation 
in  making  the  school  a  center  for.  better  social  conditions. 

313 


314  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

Clubs  have  been  organized  in  the  United  States  along  the 
following  lines :  sewing,  baking,  canning,  hot  school  lunch,  gar- 
dening, poultry,  corn  growing,  pig,  calf,  sheep,  grain  judging, 
and  stock  judging. 

Essentials  for  success.  —  Much  of  the  success  of  club  work 
depends  upon  the  organization.  There  are  decided  advantages 
in  a  county  organization.  Whether  the  county  leader  is  the 
county  agent  or  the  superintendent  of  schools  or  some  other 
person,  there  should  be  a  county  plan  and  program.  This  plan 
should  decide  upon  the  lines  of  work  to  be  undertaken,  when  the 
work  should  begin,  and  when  it  should  close.  The  county  pro- 
gram should  provide  for  meetings  of  local  leaders,  which  in  some 
cases  are  held  as  township  meetings  and  in  others  as  county 
meetings.  The  aim  of  these  conferences  is  to  consider  the  prog- 
ress of  the  work,  the  difficulties  that  have  arisen,  and  to  discuss 
matters  relating  to  the  further  progress  of  the  projects.  The 
program  should  also  provide  for  club  visits  and  for  local  and 
county  exhibits,  contests,  and  demonstrations. 

Before  a  club  is  organized  a  community  should  understand 
what  club  work  means.  Much  has  been  written  and  said  about 
this  movement;  still  there  are  many  misconceptions.  Some 
think  it  is  only  a  preparation  for  a  contest  and  others  think  it  is 
a  kind  of  reading  course.  While  both  of  these  are  essential  to 
club  work,  still  neither  is  the  end. 

The  aim  of  the  club  should  be  clearly  understood  by  boys, 
girls,  and  their  parents  before  an  organization  is  effected.  It  is 
best  to  present  this  matter  at  a  meeting  of  boys,  girls,  and  parents 
called  especially  for  this  purpose. 

Plan  of  organization.  —  The  formation  of  a  club  and  the  line 
of  work  to  be  done  having  been  decided  upon,  the  next  step  is 
the  organization.  This  deserves  careful  consideration.  Club 
work  should  not  be  presented  as  something  easy  —  a  picnic 


BOYS'   AND   GIRLS'   CLUB   WORK  315 

affair  —  but  should  challenge  members  to  put  forth  their  best 
efforts.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  each  member  sign  a  pledge 
similar  to  the  following:  "  I  hereby  agree  to  abide  by  the  rules 
of  the  club,  to  carry  out  my  project,  to  keep  a  record,  with  a 
story  of  my  work,  and  to  take  part  in  the  exhibit  should  one  be 
held."  This  should  be  countersigned  by  the  parent. 

After  a  club  is  organized,  the  enrollment  is  sent  either  to  the 
county  leader  or  direct  to  the  State  office,  depending  upon  the 
county  plan.  When  the  enrollment  reaches  the  State  office, 
three  copies  are  made :  one  is  sent  to  the  local  leader,  one  to  the 
county  leader,  and  the  other  is  kept  at  the  State  office.  After 
the  enrollment  is  received  at  the  State  office,  topics  of  instruction 
are  sent  either  direct  to  the  local  leader  or  to  the  county  leader 
who  will  send  them  to  the  local  leader. 

Standard  club.  —  Whenever  possible  a  club  should  organize 
as  a  standard  club.  The  requirements  are  as  follows : 

1.  A  membership  of  at  least  five  working  on  the  same  project. 

2.  A  local  leader  having  charge  from  the  organization  until  the 
final  reports  are  made. 

3.  Glub  officers  consisting  of  at  least  a  president  and  secre- 
tary. 

4.  A  definite  program  of  club  work.     This  should  provide 
for  at  least  six  meetings  at  which  the  club  officers  preside. 

These  are  the  four  requirements.  Others  which  should  be 
met  if  possible  are  the  following : 

5.  Hold  a  club  exhibit. 

6.  Organize  a  demonstration  team  to  give  at  least  one  public 
demonstration. 

7.  At  least  60  per  cent  of  the  members  should  complete  the 
work  and  make  final  reports. 

8.  Organize  a  judging  team. 

9.  Give  a  club  program  for  the  benefit  of  the  public. 


316  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

10.  When  the  first  four  requirements  are  met  a  club  is  entitled 
to  a  standard  charter.  When  all  the  requirements  are  met  a 
club  is  entitled  to  a  national  seal  of  achievement. 

Sometimes  it  may  not  be  possible  for  a  club  to  organize  with 
five  members ;  however,  it  is  well  to  make  the  standard  club  the 
goal  if  possible.  This  gives  a  measurement  by  which  the  work  of 
a  club  may  be  compared  in  some  degree  with  that  of  other  clubs. 

There  should  not  be  more  than  one  standard  charter  in  a 
community.  It  should  bear  the  name  of  the  community  or  club 
organization,  and  the  names  of  leaders  and  projects  should  be 
added  from  year  to  year  as  the  work  is  completed.  Great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  choosing  club  officers.  The  president 
should  have  some  executive  ability,  and  the  secretary  should  be 
careful  as  to  details  and  be  able  to  write  well. 

Constitution  and  by-laws.  —  Many  clubs  desire  to  adopt 
a  constitution  and  by-laws.  These  should  be  short  and  simple 
so  as  to  be  easily  understood  and  followed.  The  sample  given 
below  was  formulated  with  this  idea  in  mind.  It  should  be 
changed  to  meet  local  conditions. 

CONSTITUTION   AND   BY-LAWS 

CONSTITUTION 

ARTICLE  I.  —  This  club  shall  be  known  as  the 

Club  of District,  No 

County,  Missouri. 

ARTICLE  II.  —  Members  of  this  club  must  be  between  ten  and  eighteen 
years  of  age  inclusive. 

ARTICLE  III.  —  The  aim  of  this  club  is  to  follow  a  definite  line  of  work 
in  agriculture  or  home  economics,  to  make  practical  application  of  the 
things  studied,  to  make  careful  observations  and  records  of  the  work  done, 
to  keep  an  account  of  the  expenses  and  receipts  in  connection  with  the 
work,  and  to  make  a  comprehensive  report  of  the  same  in  a  well  written 
story. 


BOYS'   AND   GIRLS'   CLUB   WORK  317 

ARTICLE  IV.  —  The  officers  of  this  club  shall  be  a  president  and  secre 
tary  chosen  from  the  members. 

ARTICLE  V.  —  The  election  of  officers  shall  be  held  at  the  time  of  the 
organization  of  the  club  and  each  year  thereafter  at  the  time  of  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  club. 

ARTICLE  VI.  —  The  leader  shall  have  personal  supervision  of  all  club 
work. 

ARTICLE  VII.  —  This  constitution  may  be  changed  at  any  meeting  by  a 
two-thirds  vote. 

BY-LAWS 

1.  The  president  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  and  shall  assist  in  every 
way  to  make  the  club  work  a  success. 

2.  The  secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  the  names  and  addresses  of  all 
club  members,  also  a  record  of  the  proceedings  of  each  meeting  and  shall 
assist  in  every  way  to  make  the  club  work  a  success. 

3.  A  local  leader  shall  assist  the  president  and  secretary  in  their  official 
duties,  conduct  the  discussions,  give  out  topics  of  instruction,  blank  re- 
ports, and  make  suggestions  for  further  work. 

4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  members  to  attend  local  and  county  meet- 
ings and  to  take  part  in  the  same. 

5.  The  club  shall  hold  monthly  meetings  on  such  dates  and  at  such  places 
as  may  be  set  by  the  local  leader.     The  officers  shall  have  power  to  call 
extra  meetings  at  any  time. 

6.  At  the  monthly  meetings  each  member  must  be  ready  to  give  a  writ- 
ten or  verbal  report  on  what  has  been  done  since  the  last  meeting. 

7.  In  connection  with  the  monthly  meetings  the  local  club  leader  should 
arrange  for  special  talks,  lectures,  or  demonstrations  along  the  line  of  work 
being  followed. 

8.  These  by-laws  may  be  changed  at  any  meeting  by  a  majority  vote. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  purpose  of  the  con- 
stitution and  by-laws  is  to  give  a  simple  method  of  club  organ- 
ization and  procedure. 

Local  leaders  who  are  teachers  will  have  little  difficulty  in 
arranging  time  for  club  work ;  usually  one  period  a  week  is  used 
for  discussing  club  work.  In  case  the  work  relates  to  something 
that  must  be  done  at  home,  as  scoring  live  stock  or  selecting 
seed  corn,  members  should  report  on  what  was  done.  Compare 


318  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

reports  and  discuss  them.  Give  attention  to  any  records  that 
should  be  made.  Take  up  the  next  topic  in  the  work  ;  see  that 
members  understand  what  is  to  be  done.  Question  much  on 
what  was  done,  how  it  was  done,  and  why  it  was  done. 

Parliamentary  practice  in  club  work.  — ;  If  a  club  aims  to 
become  a  standard  club,  one  of  the  requirements  is  that  there 
shall  be  six  club  meetings  at  which  the  club  officers  preside. 
This  requirement  is  made  in  order  that  club  members  may  be 
given  practice  in  conducting  public  meetings.  This  is  a  need 
that  is  felt  in  many  communities  and  no  one  will  question  the 
practical  benefits  that  should  follow.  Only  a  few  parliamentary 
rules  should  be  considered.  These  briefly  stated  are  the  follow- 
ing: (i)  Calling  a  meeting  to  order.  (2)  Roll  call  and  response. 
(3)  Reading  and  adopting  minutes.  (4)  Making  and  seconding 
motions.  (5)  Voting,  by  aye  and  no,  by  raising  hands,  by  stand- 
ing, by  ballot.  (6)  Declaring  motions  carried  or  lost.  With  a 
thorough  understanding  of  these  few  simple  rules,  a  club  will  be 
able  to  conduct  a  public  meeting  with  some  credit. 

The  club  meetings  at  which  the  officers  preside  may  be  held 
during  school  hours  or  at  the  close  of  school.  A  club  that  is  not 
a  school  club  should  hold  these  meetings  at  a  time  and  place  that 
is  most  convenient  for  all  concerned. 

Club  program.  —  Inquiries  are  frequently  made  concerning 
the  nature  of  the  program  which  should  be  carried  out  at  club 
meetings.  These  will  vary  according  to  the  club  project,  the 
age  of  the  members,  the  season  of  the  year,  and  other  circum- 
stances. Only  general  suggestions  can  be  given.  Suppose  it 
is  a  poultry  club  that  has  been  working  two  months.  The  pro- 
gram might  probably  be  arranged  as  follows : 

1 .  Call  to  order  by  President 

2.  Roll  call  by  Secretary.      Response  by  members,  giving  some  fact 
relating  to  poultry 


BOYS'   AND   GIRLS'   CLUB   WORK 


319 


3.  Reading  and  approving  minutes 

4.  Club  song 

5.  Repeat  club  motto 

6.  Club  pledge  given  in  unison 

7;   Story  on  the  different  classes  of  chickens  and  their  origin  and  charac- 
teristics by  a  member 

8.  Story  —  (What  I  have  done  in  my  club  work,  by  a  member) 

9.  Club  song 

10.  New  and  unfinished  business 

11.  Talk  by  the  leader 

12.  Adjournment 

In  case  the  club  meeting  is  for  the  public,  the  program  should 
be  somewhat  more  elaborate.  Leaders,  however,  should  be 
careful  about  arranging  for  a  public  meeting  before  the  club  has 
had  sufficient  practice  to  carry  out  a  program.  A  failure  at  the 
first  public  meeting  is  discouraging. 

Exhibits.  —  Every  club  should  plan  for  an  exhibit.  Do  not 
hesitate  because  the  club  is  small.  If  two  or  three  take  an  interest, 


FIG.  152.  —  A  school  exhibit  of  girls'  work. 


it  is  a  beginning.  Club  members  should  not  be  discouraged 
because  their  products  are  poor,  provided  they  have  made  a  good 
effort.  Poor  seed,  unfavorable  weather,  and  other  circumstances 


320  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

may  have  been  obstacles  in  the  way ;  however,  the  exhibit  should 
be  made.  Show  the  best  you  have  and  let  the  story  of  your  work 
tell  about  the  difficulties  which  have  been  encountered.  One 
of  the  best  club  stories  ever  written  told  about  a  boy's  loss  in 
growing  melons. 

Exhibits  afford  an  opportunity  to  make  comparisons,  to  see 
the  best  produced,  to  study  defects,  and  to  set  standards.  Be- 
sides the  regular  club  products  which  are  shown,  very  interesting 
exhibits  can  be  made  of  club  charts,  posters,  and  notebooks. 
Club  charts  are  made  of  heavy  paper,  usually  about  24X36 
inches,  and  relate  to  some  project,  as  baking  or  gardening.  They 
may  give  an  outline  of  the  topics  discussed,  the  result  of  a  com- 
munity survey,  or  make  a  graphic  illustration  of  some  important 
matter.  Posters  should  be  18X24  inches.  Do  not  put  too 
much  on  a  poster,  but  let  each  one  emphasize  a  particular  point 
in  club  work.  Notebooks  should  contain  a  record  of  the  club 
organization,  history  of  the  club,  an  outline  of  the  subjects  con- 
sidered, field  trips,  surveys  made,  special  club  events,  exhibits, 
contests,  and  other  activities. 

Prizes  and  contests.  —  Prizes  have  their  place  in  club  work, 
but  should  not  be  stressed  too  much.  It  is  poor  policy  to  urge 
club  members  to  do  club  work  primarily  to  win  a  prize.  Local 
communities  as  a  rule  are  generous  towards  requests  for  prizes, 
provided  the  matter  is  not  overdone.  A  club  member  should 
feel  amply  rewarded,  if  he  has  the  best  exhibit  at  a  local  or  county 
show.  Prizes  should  have  some  relation  to  the  kind  of  exhibit 
made.  A  hand  spray  is  much  more  appropriate  for  a  premium 
in  a  garden  exhibit  than  a  necktie. 

In  connection  with  exhibits  some  kinds  of  contests  are  usually 
held.  If  an  exhibit  of  poultry  is  made,  most  often  the  contest 
is  based  on  judging  poultry  ;  if  the  exhibit  is  corn,  a  corn-judging 
contest  is  held.  This  refers  to  contests  in  club  products.  There 


BOYS'   AND    GIRLS'    CLUB   WORK 


321 


are  club  contests  in  games,  stunts,  and  other  competitions  which 
are  always  an  interesting  feature  in  a  club-day  event. 

A  club  record  contest  may  be  made  very  helpful  in  a  county 
program.  The  aim  is  to  encourage  good  work  and  to  award  a 
banner  or  pennant,  to  be  kept  one  year,  to  the  club  making  the 
highest  record  in  the  county  according  to  the  following  score : 

POINTS 

1.  Total  enrollment .      ;  .     ,    <    15 

2.  Number  of  meetings  held  (i  2  perfect  score)  .         .         .         .     15 

3.  Highest  average  attendance  at  regular  meetings    .         .     ,    .     20 

4.  Highest  percentage  of  members  submitting  complete  reports     30 

5.  Highest  percentage  of  members  making  exhibits    .         .         .20 

Explanation:  If  the  highest  enrollment  is  30,  the  score  on 
this  point  is  15.  If  the  second  highest  enrollment  is  24,  the 
score  would  be  80  per  cent  of  15,  which  is  12. 


FIG.  153.  —  Mr.  Joseph  Cook,  practical  farmer,  showing  fine  points  of  his  Holstein  to  the 

members  of  his  class. 

Meaning  of  demonstration.  —  The  term  demonstration  has 
two  meanings.  The  first  implies  the  work  of  a  whole  project, 
as  corn  growing,  beginning  with  the  selection  of  the  seed  and 


322  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

closing  with  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  and  making  final  reports. 
The  second  meaning  refers  to  some  particular  factor  in  the  proj- 
ect, as  testing  seed  corn  or  determining  the  shelling  percentage. 

Demonstrations  are  given  by  leaders  or  some  capable  person 
for  the  purpose  of  teaching  an  important  operation.  All  the 
members  of  a  club  or  of  several  clubs  may  be  brought  together 
for  this  purpose.  The  demonstration  may  be  any  of  the  follow- 
ing or  others :  How  to  spray,  how  to  select  seed  corn,  how  to 
disinfect  seed  potatoes,  how  to  cull  poultry  flocks,  how  to  select 
clothing,  how  to  judge  bread,  how  to  keep  club  records. 

When  demonstrations  are  given  by  club  teams  or  by  a  single 
member,  the  aim  is  to  show  the  knowledge  and  skill  acquired  by 
the  members  and  also  to  show  some  important  process  in  club 
work. 

Method  of  demonstration.  —  In  giving  a  demonstration,  begin 
with  some  short,  simple  process.  Let  the  demonstration  develop 
naturally  from  the  actual  work  done.  A  talk  or  recitation  should 
not  be  considered  a  demonstration.  Remember  that  a  demon- 
stration deals  with  material  things  and  aims  to  teach  a  process. 
In  order  to  insure  success,  see  that  all  needed  materials  are  at 
hand,  that  the  subject  matter  is  understood,  and  then  the  demon- 
stration will  proceed  naturally. 

Club  stories  should  be  required  in  all  projects.  If  records 
are  properly  kept,  the  story  will  not  be  a  big  task.  This  phase 
of  the  work,  like  demonstrations,  should  be  developed.  After 
making  a  field  trip,  after  a  demonstration  or  some  other  interest- 
ing event,  members  should  tell  about  it  orally  and  then  put  it 
in  written  form.  Keep  attention  fixed  on  the  final  story.  It 
should  mention  every  important  process,  every  interesting  event, 
and  give  the  final  results  and  conclusions  that  have  been  reached. 
The  language  should  be  plain,  simple,  and  correct.  The  writing 
should  be  such  that  it  can  be  easily  read.  A  club  member  should 


BOYS'   AND   GIRLS'   CLUB   WORK  323 

take  pride  in  his  story  because  it  is  a  narration  of  his  own  efforts. 
The  educational  value  of  this  phase  of  the  work  will  be  granted 
without  any  question. 

Social  side  of  club  work.  —  Club  leaders  and  club  workers 
should  not  lose  sight  of  recreational  activities.  If  club  work  is 
to  play  any  part  in  the  solution  of  the  country  life  problem,  then 
club  members  must  be  students  of  agriculture  and  home  eco- 
nomics, and  they  must  also  interest  themselves  in  those  prob- 
lems that  make  for  a  happier,  more  contented,  and  more 
satisfying  social  life. 

The  charge  has  been  made  that  young  people  in  the  country 
do  not  play,  that  social  life  is  dull  and  static.  There  are  many 
reasons  for  this  conclusion ;  however,  if  conditions  are  ever 
improved,  the  movement  must  be  begun  with  boys  and  girls. 
They  must  be  encouraged  to  take  the  initiative  and  learn  to  be 
self-dependent.  A  club  organization  is  a  good  avenue  through 
which  to  work.  Boys  and  girls  should  be  encouraged  not  only 
to  excel  in  the  matter  of  production,  —  to  produce  the  best 
and  at  the  least  expense  possible,  but  also  to  become  leaders 
in  plays,  games,  and  other  wholesome  amusements.  Club  games 
should  be  adapted  to  both  sexes ;  they  should  require  the  smallest 
amount  of  equipment  and  be  such  that  a  small  number  may 
play  as  well  as  a  large  number. 

Club  singing.  —  Singing  will  do  much  to  enliven  club  work. 
Community  singing  needs  to  be  cultivated.  Do  not  hesitate 
because  there  is  no  instrument  at  hand,  nor  a  trained  leader 
present.  Begin  with  simple  songs  and  keep  trying.  There  are 
many  club  songs  that  young  people  like  to  sing.  Club  leaders 
should  arrange  for  some  games,  songs,  and  other  recreations  at 
as  many  club  meetings  as  possible. 

Project  methods.  —  Club  leaders  should  make  out  a  program 
of  work  which  should  give  consideration  to  the  things  to  be  done, 


324  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

when  and  how  they  should  be  done,  preparations  to  be  made  in 
advance,  records  to  be  kept  and  reports  to  be  made.  From  the 
very  beginning  the  leader  should  see  to  the  close  of  the  work  and 
plan  accordingly.  This  will  be  illustrated  by  using  one  or  two 
projects. 

a.  Corn  growing  clubs.  The  aim  is  to  demonstrate  the  most 
approved  method  of  producing  corn  at  the  least  expense.  The 
topics  will  include  the  following : 

1.  Selecting  a  variety  suited  to  the  locality 

2.  Testing  seed 

3.  Fertilizers 

4.  Preparing  the  seed  bed  and  planting 

5.  Injurious  insects 

6.  Cultivation 

7.  Field  selection  of  seed 

8.  Harvesting  and  measuring  yield  according  to  directions 

9.  Keeping  a  record  of  expenses 

10.  Make  a  local  exhibit  of  ten  ears 

1 1 .  Make  out  final  reports 

12.  Write  a  story  of  the  work 

If  a  club  is  organized  early  in  the  year,  and  if  it  is  a  school 
club,  all  these  topics  may  be  studied  before  the  crop  season  begins. 
Every  detail  may  be  explained,  even  to  the  making  of  the  final 
reports.  There  is  an  advantage  in  this  plan  because  members 
will  understand  from  the  beginning  what  things  are  required. 

Club  meetings  may  be  held  at  a  home,  schoolhouse,  church, 
or  in  the  open,  but  the  project  work  must  be  done  at  home. 
When  a  meeting  is  held  during  the  crop  season,  the  first  thing 
that  should  be  considered  is  the  work  that  has  been  done.  Let 
members  report,  giving  their  experiences,  and  comparing  notes. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  factors  of  club  work.  After  this 
is  done,  give  consideration  to  the  next  topic  or  topics.  Club 


BOYS'   AND   GIRLS'    CLUB   WORK 


325 


members  should  have  a  clear  understanding  of  the  next  step. 
Careful  records  should  be  made  of  all  that  is  done.  Discuss 
these  records  as  the  work  proceeds.  If  this  is  done,  the  final 
reports  and  story  will  be  easy  matters. 


FIG.  154.  —  A  large  hatch  of  chicks 

b.    Poultry  clubs.     The  aim  of  this  project  is  tox  teach  club 
members  how  to  make  poultry  raising  more  profitable.     The 


326  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

first  year's  work  is  a  hatching  project.     Members  are  required 
to  do  the  following : 

1.  Make  four  settings  of  eggs  (60)  from  pure  bred  flocks 

2.  Study  the  best  method  of  feeding  and  handling  young 
chicks 

3.  Make  brood  coops,  feed  hoppers,  and  watering  troughs 

4.  Study  the  control  of  lice  and  mites 

5.  Poultry  disease  and  sanitation 

6.  Make  a  local  exhibit  of  a  cockerel  and  pullet 

7.  Cull  the  home  flock 

8.  Keep  a  record  of  work  done  and  all  expenses 

9.  Make  final  reports  and  write  story  of  the  work 

Club  members  are  encouraged  to  improve  the  quality  of 
poultry,  increase  the  size  of  the  flocks,  cull  out  the  slackers, 
learn  something  about  classes  and  breeds  of  chickens,  and  make 
a  poultry  survey  of  the  community.  In  case  the  club  is  organized 
in  a  school,  the  different  topics  can  be  considered  to  good  advan- 
tage during  school  hours,  but  the  work  must  be  done  at  the  homes. 
If  a  club  has  no  connection  with  a  school,  the  meetings  will  be 
held  at  some  place  most  convenient  for  the  members.  The  plan 
of  work  should  be  similar  to  that  suggested  for  corn  clubs. 

Poultry  club  members  will  be  greatly  benefited  by  visiting 
each  other,  inspecting  the  plans  as  carried  out,  and  making  com- 
parisons. Sometimes  these  visits  are  arranged  for  the  members 
to  go  in  a  body  from  house  to  house.  When  this  is  done,  the 
member  visited  should  explain  his  plans  and  others  should  ask 
questions.  Do  not  prolong  visits  beyond  the  point  where  interest 
lags. 

The  method  of  conducting  other  lines  of  club  work  will  be 
similar  to  those  of  corn  clubs  and  poultry  clubs.  The  leader 
and  club  members  should  always  make  a  general  survey  of  the 
club  project,  make  a  note  of  the  different  topics  to  be  considered, 


BOYS'   AND   GIRLS'   CLUB   WORK 


327 


when  each  process  is  to  be  done,  and  close  with  the  final  reports. 
This  will  enable  the  club  to  nake  out  its  program  and  to  work 
to  the  completion  of  it. 

Relation  of  club  to  school.  —  The  question  is  often  asked, 
What  is  the  relation  of  club  work  to  the  country  schools  ?  Club 
work  is  supported  by  funds  derived  from  the  National  and  State 
Governments  and  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Agricultural 
Extension  Service.  Public  schools  are  supported  by  state  and 
local  taxes  and  are  under  the  direction  of  a  board  of  directors. 


FIG.  155.  —  A  litter  of  Chester  white  pigs. 

The  aim  of  club  work,  as  stated  in  the  opening  paragraph,  is  to 
make  a  study  of  some  problem  or  project  closely  related  to  the 
farm  and  the  home,  and  to  put  into  practical  operation  this 
knowledge  gained.  It  is  hardly  conceivable  that  a  project 
could  be  completed  without  club  members  having  acquired  some 
valuable  knowledge. 

A  common  definition  of  the  function  of  the  school  is  to  prepare 
boys  and  girls  for  useful  citizenship.  This  is  open  to  criticism, 
but  it  will  be  accepted  for  the  present  discussion.  If  the  school 


328  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

attempts  to  measure  up  to  this  responsibility,  it  must  give  con- 
sideration to  community  needs  and  community  problems,  and 
more  attention  must  be  given  to  teaching  pupils  in  terms  of 
their  environment.  This  will  certainly  be  a  step  towards  pre- 
paring boys  and  girls  for  useful  citizenship. 

What  are  the  relations  of  club  work  to  this  educational  pro- 
gram ?  The  club  projects  are  based  on  the  activities  of  the  home 
and  the  farm ;  therefore,  are  closely  related  to  the  environment 
of  the  members.  Club  work  aims  to  produce  corn,  pork,  poultry, 
and  other  products,  at  the  least  expense ;  therefore  it  is  related 
to  community  needs.  The  desire  to  raise  the  best  vegetables, 
can  the  nicest  fruit,  or  bake  the  best  bread  furnishes  a  motive 
for  study  and  effort  in  club  work.  The  ambition  of  a  club  to 
excel  as  an  organization  strengthens  the  spirit  of  cooperation 
which  is  so  much  needed  in  rural  communities.  Club  work 
deals  with  familiar  things,  practical  things,  concrete  objects, 
thereby  following  some  well-established  principles  of  pedagogy. 
Nothing  has  yet  been  discovered  that  brings  about  a  closer 
relationship  between  the  school  and  the  home  than  club  work ; 
thus  is  achieved  another  desirable  aim  in  education. 

Club  records,  stories,  notebooks,  posters,  and  charts  are  im- 
portant educational  factors,  and,  when  used  in  connection  with 
the  regular  school  program,  they  can  be  correlated  to  great 
advantage.  There  is  naturally  a  close  relation  between  club 
work  and  the  school.  It  is  possible  to  use  this  relation  very 
much  to  the  advantage  of  boys  and  girls  and  the  community  as 
a  whole. 

The    four-leaf    clover  —  the     symbol    of    club    workers.  - 
Each  leaf  contains  the  letter  H,  which  stands  for  the  head,  the 
hands,  the  heart,  and  the  health.     They  are  further  explained 
as  follows:   Train  the  head  to  think,  plan,  and  reason;   by  at- 
tending school,  being  a  club  member,  reading  books,  papers 


BOYS'   AND   GIRLS'   CLUB   WORK  329 

and  magazines.  Train  the  hands  to  be  useful,  helpful,  and 
skillful ;  by  helping  at  home,  in  the  club,  in  the  games,  and  doing 
a  good  turn  daily.  Train  the  heart  to  be  kind,  true,  and  sympa- 
thetic ;  by  self-denial,  and  service  for  others.  Train  the  health 
to  resist  disease,  enjoy  life,  and  make  for  efficiency;  by  deep 
breathing,  moderate  eating,  clean  teeth,  clean  body,  early  to  bed, 
early  to  rise,  sleep  with  windows  open. 

THE   CLUB   PLEDGE 

As  a  true  club  member,  I  pledge  my  head  to  clearer  thinking,  my  heart 
to  greater  loyalty,  my  hands  to  larger  service,  and  my  health  to  better 
living,  for  my  club,  my  community,  and  my  country. 

THE   CLUB   CREED 

I  believe  in  Boys'  and  Girls'  Club  Work  for  the  opportunity  it  gives  me 
to  become  a  useful  citizen. 

I  believe  in  the  training  of  my  head  for  the  power  it  will  give  me  to  think 
and  plan  and  reason. 

I  believe  in  the  training  of  my  heart  for  the  nobleness  it  will  give  me  to 
be  kind,  sympathetic,  and  true. 

I  believe  in  the  training  of  my  hands  for  the  dignity  it  will  give  me  to  be 
helpful,  skillful,  and  useful. 

I  believe  in  the  training  of  my  health  for  the  strength  it  will  give  me  to 
enjoy  life,  to  resist  disease,  and  make  for  efficiency. 

I  believe  in  the  great  trinity  of  club  work :  the  School,  the  Home,  and 
Achievement. 

I  believe  in  my  country,  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  and  my  responsibility 
or  their  development. 

In  all  those  things  I  believe  I  am  willing  to  dedicate  my  service  for  their 
fulfillment. 

THE  COUNTRY  BOY'S  CREED 

I  believe  the  country,  which  God  made,  is  more  beautiful  than  the  city, 
which  man  made ;  that  life  out  of  doors  and  in  touch  with  the  earth  is  the 
natural  life  of  man.  I  believe  that  work  is  work  wherever  I  find  it,  but  that 
work  with  nature  is  more  inspiring  than  work  with  the  most  intricate  ma- 
chinery. I  believe  that  the  dignity  of  labor  depends,  not  on  what  you  do, 


330  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

but  on  how  you  do  it ;  that  opportunity  comes  to  a  boy  on  the  farm  as  often 
as  to  a  boy  of  the  city ;  that  life  is  longer,  freer  and  happier  on  the  farm 
than  in  the  town ;  that  my  success  depends,  not  on  my  location,  but  on 
myself  ;  not  upon  my  dreams,  but  upon  what  I  actually  do  ;  not  upon  my 
luck,  but  upon  my  pluck.  I  believe  in  working  when  you  work,  playing 
when  you  play,  and  in  giving  and  demanding  a  square  deal  in  every  act  of 
life. 

EDWIN  OSGOOD  GROVER. 


CHAPTER  XX 
CHOOSING   A   FARM 

FARMS  are  purchased  for  economic  purposes  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  homes.  Both  of  these  points  are  so  important 
in  the  choice  of  a  farm  that  Cato's  advice  given  two  thousand 
years  ago  may  still  be  followed :  "  When  you  have  decided  to 
purchase  a  farm,  be  careful  not  to  buy  rashly ;  do  not  spare  your 
visits,  and  be  not  content  with  a  single  tour  of  inspection.  The 
more  you  go,  the  more  will  the  place  please  you  if  it  is  worth 
your  attention.  Give  heed  to  the  appearance  of  the  neighborhood 
—  a  flourishing  country  should  show  its  prosperity.  When  you 
go  in  look  about,  so  that,  when  need  be,  you  can  find  your  way 
out."  1 

The  economic  aspect,  in  purchasing  a  farm,  is  important. 
The  farm  should  make  a  satisfactory  home  for  every  member  of 
the  family.  The  factors  bearing  upon  these  two  points  will  be 
discussed  in  the  following  paragraphs.  This  brief  treatise  is 
general,  and  the  statements  made  will  not  be  without  exceptions 
in  many  localities  of  the  United  States. 

Economic  aspects  in  choosing  a  farm.  —  Soil.  The  kind, 
lay,  and  fertility  of  the  soil  are  of  greatest  importance.  The 
texture,  structure,  amount  of  organic  matter,  and  the  depth  of 
the  soil  are  important  things  to  consider.  Free  use  of  a  post- 
hole  digger,  or  soil  auger,  on  every  five  acres  of  the  farm,  aids  in 

Note  to  the  Teacher :  Work  out  data  suggested  at  close  of  chapter. 
1  Warren ;  "Farm  Management. " 


332  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

A 

this  study.  A  depth  of  from  3  to  5  feet  of  the  soil  should  be 
carefully  examined.  (Fig.  156.)  A  soil  composed  of  about  equal 
parts  of  clay  and  sand  makes  a  good  foundation. 
This  with  an  additional  supply  of  organic  matter 
gives  a  desirable  soil.  Examining  the  soil  and  the 
subsoil  with  the  hand  and  washing  some  of  the 
soil  to  find  its  sand  content  help  in  gaining  a  proper 
estimate  of  its  real  productive  value. 

Farm  improvements.  Warren  says  upon  this 
point:  "  The  site  of  the  farm,  with  respect  to  the 
fields,  the  number  and  kind  of  buildings,  fences, 
and  orchard,  will  of  course  be  carefully  inspected. 
Chief  attention  should  be  given  to  the  roofs, 
soil  ^ugef  made  foundations,  frames  of  buildings,  and  least  at- 
by  welding  a  f-  tendon  to  paint.  The  arrangement  for  conven- 

mch  gas  pipe  to  .  . 

wood  icnce  in  work  is  of  importance. 

"  But  one  should  be  careful  not  to  buy  a  farm 

proper  use  in esti-  merely  for  its  buildings.     Many  Western  men  buy- 
mating  the  value  .  . 
of  land.              mg   Eastern    farms   are    buying   buildings.      The 

farms  look  cheap,  because  the  buildings  are 
worth  more  than  the  price  asked.  But  there  is  no  profit 
from  buildings.  In  very  many  cases  the  farms  never  did  pay. 
The  early  settler  made  his  little  income  by  lumbering,  and  used 
a  generous  amount  of  lumber  for  buildings.  The  lumber  is 
gone :  the  farms  have  such  poor  soils  that  they  do  not  pay  for 
working.  Of  course  this  does  not  apply  to  the  thousands  of 
Eastern  farms  that  have  rich  soils,  but  good  soils  are  not  given 
away  with  a  present  thrown  in."  l 

Hunt  states,  "  From  an  economic  point  of  view  it  is  possible 
that  for  general  farming  it  is  not  wise  to  invest  more  than  one- 
fourth  the  aggregate  value  of  the  farm  in  buildings  of  all  kinds." 
1  Warren ;  "Farm  Management." 


CHOOSING  A   FARM  333 

Many  farms  have  more  capital  invested  in  buildings  than  can  be 
justified  upon  an  economic  basis.  Farms  with  such  necessary 
improvements  in  the  way  of  buildings,  fences,  orchards,  etc.,  all 
in  good  repair,  can  generally  be  purchased  more  cheaply  than  can 
an  equal  amount  of  land,  plus  the  cost  of  putting  on  an  equal 
amount  of  improvements.  However,  in  regard  to  this  matter 
there  is  no  general  rule  to  which  no  exceptions  can  be  laid 
down. 

Where  a  farm  is  supplied  with  buildings,  it  should  be  observed 
whether  or  not  the  buildings  conform  with  the  type  of  farming 
for  which  the  farm  is  to  be  purchased.  A  chicken  house  is  usually 
a  poor  corn  bin  or  sheep  stable.  If  buildings  must  be  rebuilt, 
the  cost  of  doing  so  must  be  carefully  estimated  before  a  farm 
is  purchased. 

Markets.  Good  markets  are  important  to  the  successful 
operation  of  a  farm.  Dairy  and  truck  farms  should  be  within 
three  or  four  miles  of  a  railroad  station,  which  is  in  direct  line 
to  a  good  market.  Grain  farms  may  be  a  little  farther  away 
from  the  market,  and  where  grains  are  fed  to  livestock  the  farm 
may  be  still  a  little  farther  from  the  station.  Dairying  and 
vegetable  gardening  are  hazardous  occupations  if  the  farms  are 
far  away  from  the  trunk  line  of  a  railroad.  Direct  transportation 
facilities  are  important  in  choosing  a  farm. 

Roads.  Kind  of  roads  and  methods  of  transportation  affect 
materially  the  value  of  a  farm.  Good,  level  roads  that  are 
open  all  the  year  increase  farm  values  wonderfully.  Transport- 
ing a  pound  of  material  one  mile  on  unpaved  roads  may  require 
as  much  energy  and  cost  as  much  as  transporting  ten  pounds  the 
same  distance  over  a  paved  road.  In  other  words,  transportation 
over  ten  miles  of  good  level  roads  may  not  cost  any  more  than 
transporting  the  same  goods  over  one  mile  of  unpaved  roads. 
Good  roads  bring  the  market  nearer. 


334  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM   MECHANICS 

Cooperation.  Another  factor  that  may  well  be  considered  is 
the  spirit  of  cooperation  in  a  locality.  Cooperation  in  pur- 
chasing things  needed  about  the  farm  and  in  selling  farm  products 
is  very  desirable  in  any  community.  It  is  generally  true  that 
$10  will  buy  more  than  ten  times  as  much  as  will  $i.  Coopera- 
tive marketing  is  often  very  convenient  and  economical.  One 
man  may  often  haul  the  milk  sold  by  ten  or  more  dairymen 
living  along  one  route.  This  saves  time  and  labor.  Machinery 
may  be  owned  cooperatively.  Farmers  may  cooperate  to 
improve  markets.  Schools,  churches,  a  library,  and  other 
valuable  institutions  may  be  had  in  a  community  which  cooper- 
ates. 

Size  of  farms.  One  of  the  important  factors  in  the  selection 
of  a  farm  is  its  size.  The  type  of  farming  to  be  practiced  will 
influence  the  amount  of  land  needed.  For  truck  farming  a  few 
acres  may  be  sufficient.  A  larger  farm  is  needed  for  grain  farm- 
ing, and  in  stock  production  even  larger  farms  may  be  more 
economical.  The  labor,  the  farm  implements,  and  the  number  of 
horses  needed  to  do  the  work  on  160  acres  is  not  much  greater 
than  that  needed  to  farm  80  acres.  Very  small  farms  mean  un- 
employment for  both  man  and  horse.  The  old  saying,  "  Three 
acres  and  a  cow  "  or  "  Three  acres  and  liberty,"  usually  means 
unemployment  and  a  small  income.  While  no  general  rule  can 
be  stated  as  to  the  relation  of  size  of  farms  to  profits,  it  may 
well  be  borne  in  mind  that  farms  large  enough  to  use  labor- 
saving  machinery  and  employ  constantly  horse  and  man  labor 
are  essential  to  success  in  farming.  The  size  of  a  farm  must  be 
considered  in  choosing  a  farm. 

Choosing  a  farm  for  a  home.  —  The  healthfulness,  the  neigh- 
borhood, the  privileges  of  the  church,  school,  and  community 
organizations  are  very  important  in  the  choice  of  a  farm,  —  even 
as  important  as  are  the  factors  influencing  the  economic  aspects 


CHOOSING  A   FARM 


335 


of  a  farm.  Suitable  social  surroundings  concern  parents  more 
than  the  production  of  a  crop.  Providing  such  conditions  in 
the  rural  communities  that  the  boy  and  girl  of  the  country  are 
satisfied  to  live  in  the  country,  is  a  problem  yet  to  be  solved  in 
most  rural  communities.  The  two  important  factors  in  causing 
the  boy  and  the  girl  to  remain  on  the  farm  are : 

1 .  An  economic  income  from  the  farm  so  that  the  conveniences 
of  life  may  be  had  at  least  to  a  comfortable  degree. 

2.  The  building  of  such  a  home  and  community  that  the  social 
wants  of  the  family  are  supplied.     The  first  of  these  points  has 
been  discussed  in  the  above  paragraphs.     Some  of  the  factors 
influencing  the  second  will  be  mentioned  in  the  following  sections. 

Healthfulness.  To  choose  a  farm  that  does  not  provide  health- 
ful conditions  is  to  invite  failure  at  once.  The  healthfulness  of  a 
home  is  all-important.  The  house  should  be  located  on  an 
elevated,  dry,  well-drained  spot. 
Low,  swampy  places  are  condu- 
cive to  malaria,  typhoid  fever, 
and  rheumatism.  If  an  entire  lo- 
cality is  unhealthful,  it  will  re- 
quire community  cooperation  to 
remove  the  cause  and  improve 
the  conditions.  In  the  choice  of 
a  farm  its  conditions  for  main- 
taining and  promoting  healthful- 
ness  must  be  carefully  considered. 

Neighborhood.  The  moral  standards,  the  progressiveness,  the 
community  spirit,  and  neighborliness  are  of  vast  importance 
in  choosing  a  farm.  Good  roads,  schools,  churches,  homes,  and 
farm  improvements  are  indications  of  a  desirable  community. 
A  high  grade  of  stock  and  farms  that  are  well  planned  and  cul- 
tivated characterize  a  good  farmer,  a  good  stockman,  a  good 


FIG.  157.  —  A  landmark  of  learning. 
Better  school  buildings  are  being  built 
to-day. 


336 


LIVE   STOCK   AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


homemaker,  and  a  desirable  citizen  and  neighbor.  Farmers 
and  farmers'  children  are  compelled  to  mingle  with  their  neigh- 
bors in  cooperative  farm  work,  in  church,  in  school,  and  in  other 
organizations,  and  it  is  important  that  neighborliness  and  social 
kindness  and  a  brotherly  spirit  prevail. 


FIG.  158.  —  A  school  garden,  an  important  factor  in  economic  living  in  country  or  city. 


Schools.  No  one  would  purchase  a  farm  in  a  locality  where 
there  are  no  schools.  Schools  enhance  the  value  of  lands  and 
are  a  great  factor  in  the  uplift  of  any  community.  To  be  able 
to  locate  near  a  town,  village,  or  consolidated  school  may  be 
worth  from  $5  to  $10  an  acre  of  land  purchased.  The  con- 
solidated schools  of  Iowa,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Minnesota,  North 
and  South  Dakota,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Indiana  are  very 
valuable  to  the  communities  in  which  they  are  located.  Com- 


CHOOSING  A   FARM  337 

munity  transportation  of  children  to  schools  is  successful  (Fig. 
159)  and  fairly  economical  in  many  localities. 

Churches.  The  opportunities  for  religious  services  are  also 
important.  The  physical,  intellectual,  social,  and  religious 
development  and  training  of  children  and  adults  are  all  essential. 
Often  the  schoolhouse  is  the  center  of  all  the  social  and  religious 
functions  of  a  community.  The  schoolhouse  is  public  property 
and  should  be  open  for  use  to  any  gathering  which  has  for  its 


FIG.  159.  —  Conveying  pupils  to  school.     During  winter  months  closed 
wagons  are  used. 

purpose  the  betterment  of  the  community.  The  country  church 
adds  values  which  cannot  be  measured  by  money.  In  some 
instances  it  may  be  feasible  in  the  construction  of  schoolhouses 
to  add  a  room  in  which  the  community  may  have  meetings  of 
various  kinds,  —  religious,  educational,  and  social.  Such  a  meet- 
ing place  will  help  solve  rural  problems. 

The  "  Federated  Church  "  represents  a  neighborly,  brotherly, 
spiritually  united  community.  The  federated  church  is  a  land- 
mark in  the  evolution  of  community  development.  Such  a 
locality  is  a  good  place  for  the  establishment  of  a  home. 


338 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


Social  gatherings.  Literary  clubs,  debating  societies,  spelling 
matches,  farmers'  organizations,  girls'  and  boys'  clubs  are  worth 
much  to  any  community ;  they  foster  community  cooperation 
and  help  the  community  to  get  what  it  wants. 

Summary.  —  In  choosing  a  farm  the  economic  and  home- 
making  aspects  are  important.  The  fertility  and  productive- 
ness of  the  soil,  the  farm  improvements,  the  markets,  and  the 
size  of  the  farm  are  conditions  that  affect  the  choice  of  a  farm 
from  an  economic  standpoint.  The  healthfulness,  good  neigh- 
bors, school,  church,  and  social  opportunities  and  facilities  affect 
the  choice  of  a  farm  from  a  homemaking  standpoint.  The 
choice  of  a  farm  may  bring  either  success  or  failure. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Have  pupils  ascertain  from  several  farmers  the  value  of  their  farm 
buildings.     The  value  of  separate  buildings  should  be  itemized.     At  the 
same  time  the  value  of  the  land  should  be  asked  for.     The  buildings  repre- 
sent what  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  the  land  and  buildings?    Discuss 
the  value  of  different  buildings  in  their  connection  with  the  type  of  farm- 
ing practiced. 

2.  Have  each  pupil  determine  the  distance  traveled  to  and  from  mar- 
ket upon  the  basis  of  the  distance  they  live  from  market,  if  they  go  to  mar- 
ket daily.     Find  the  cost  of  a  year's  travel  to  market  if  it  costs  15  cents 
a  mile  to  transport  the  material  they  carry. 

3.  Have  pupils  find  the  size  of  all  the  farms  in  the  school  district,  and 
record  as  follows : 


NAME  OF  FARMER 

SIZE  OF  FARM,  ACRES 

KIND  OF  FARMING 

CHOOSING  A  FARM  339 

Discuss  the  size  of  at  least  two  farms  as  to  the  type  of  farming  practiced. 
For  example,  compare  truck  farming  with  general  farming.  i 

4.  Write  a  two  hundred  word  essay  on  the  locality,   church,  school, 
social  organizations,  and  privileges,  and  healthfulness  of  the  community. 

5.  Have  pupils  copy  score  card  in  a  permanent  notebook. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  FARMS1 


1.  Location  POINTS 

1.  Healthfulness  of  surroundings 5 

2.  Neighbors 5 

3.  Schools 5 

4.  Churches       5 

2.  Equipment 

1.  Size  of  farms  (as  adapted  to  farming)        5 

2.  Natural  advantages  (wood,  water,  drainage) 5 

3.  Improvements 

1.  Ditches,  tile  drains,  buildings 5 

2.  Site  of  farmstead 5 

3.  Shape  and  size  of  fields  .     .     .     .     ; 5 

3.  Production 

1.  Soil,  natural  fertility 10 

2.  Condition  (freedom  from  stones,  stumps,  weeds,  and  waste 

land) 10 

3.  Topography  (as  affecting  erosion,  and  ease  of  cultivation)  10 

4.  Climate  (annual  rainfall,  temperature,  frosts) 5 

4.  Transportation  and  markets 

1.  Wagon  roads  (kind  and  condition)        ........  5 

2.  Local  markets  (kind,  and  distance)       10 

3.  Shipping  facilities 5 

Total 100 

1  Boss  ;  "Farm  Management." 


CHAPTER  XXI 
PLANNING   THE   FARM 

Plan  of  farm  must  insure  efficiency.  —  Farms  should  be  so 
planned  that  man  labor  and  horse  labor,  machinery,  land,  and 
fencing  may  be  used  efficiently.  Often  farms  are  so  planned  that 
none  of  the  factors  essential  to  success  is  present.  Why  not  re- 
model the  farm  if  it  can  be  improved  ?  Very  often  farms  cannot 
be  replanned  to  advantage,  yet  it  is  also  true  that  many  farms 
can  be  replanned. 

The  following  general  principles  should  be  observed  in  the 
management  and  replanning  of  a  farm : 

1.  It  should  provide  for  a  rotation  of  crops. 

2.  It  should  provide  for  a  diversified  crop  system  and  an  even 
distribution  of  farm  labor. 

3.  It  should  be  so  arranged  if  possible  that  all  fields  are  long 
and  rectangular. 

4.  It  should  be  so  planned  that  all  fields  are  accessible  to  the 
homestead. 

5.  It  should  be  so  planned  and  so  farmed  that  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  is  protected. 

6.  It  should  be  so  planned  that  the  crops  grown  will  provide  a 
balanced  ration  for  all  farm  animals. 

7.  It  should  be  so  planned  that  it  provides  five  or  more  sources 
of  income. 

The  two  diagrams  that  follow  show  a  farm  as  it  was  utilized 
for  many  years,  and  as  it  is  now  planned  and  farmed.  They 

34° 


PLANNING   THE   FARM 


341 


illustrate  the  essential  points  in  the  planning  of  a  farm.     This 
farm  as  replanned  forms  the  basis  of  the  discussion  in  this  chapter. 


FIG.  1 60.  —  A  farm  of  160  acres  poorly  planned. 

The  above  farm  is  poorly  planned  because  (i)  the  fields  are 
not  uniform  in  size;  (2)  the  roadway  cuts  diagonally  through 
the  farm,  making  four  triangular  fields;  (3)  the  house  is  so 
located  that  the  fields  and  pastures  are  not  easily  accessible. 

The  same  farm  when  replanned  appears  as  in  Fig.  161. 

1 .  The  farm  represented  in  the  second  plan  is  farmed  according 
to  a  strict  system  of  crop  rotation.     A  six-year  crop  rotation  is 
used.     The  crop  yields  are  above  the  average  secured  in  that 
section,  because  legumes  are  systematically  used  in  the  crop 
rotation.     They  aid  in  protecting  the  soil. 

2.  A  well-planned  farm  must  provide  for  a  diversified  crop 
system.     Such  a  system  distributes  labor,  protects  the  fertility 
of  the  soil,  provides  a  ration  which  is  more  nearly  balanced,  and 
reduces  the  chances  for  a  complete  failure. 

3.  The  improved  plan  provides  for  long  rectangular  fields. 


342 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


It  is  well  known  that  long  rectangular  fields  are  more  easily  and 
more  economically  cultivated  than  triangular  or  irregular  fields. 
Long  fields  are  adapted  to  the  use  of  larger  machinery,  and  the 
use  of  large  machinery  is  one  of  the  efficiency  factors  in  econom- 
ical production. 

4.  The  farm  is  replanned  so  that  every  field  is  accessible  to 
the  homestead.  In  the  original  plan  two  fields  were  not  acces- 
sible to  the  farmstead.  Fields  which  are  inaccessible  to  the  farm- 


30  Acres 
Pasture 

30  Acres 
Corn  and  soybeans  2  Years 
Oats  and  red  clover  2  Years 
Wheat                       2  Years 

30  Acres 
Alfalfa  for  6  Years 

30  Acres 
Wheat                    2  Years 
Corn  and  soybeans  2  Years 
Oats  and  red  clover  2  Years 

10  Acres 
Farmstead 

30  Acres 
Oats  and  red  clover  2  Years 
Wheat                       2  Years 
Com  and  soybeans  2  Years                      • 

FIG.  161.  —  A  farm  of  160  acres  well  planned. 

stead  cannot  be  tilled  nor  grazed  as  conveniently  as  those  fields 
which  are  accessible.  Driving  cattle  to  and  from  fields  which  are 
not  connected  by  a  roadway  requires  both  time  and  trouble. 
But  if  all  the  fields  are  connected  by  way  of  the  pasture,  then  time 
and  trouble  are  saved. 

5.  The  above  farm  is  so  arranged  and  cropped  that  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  is  protected.  The  crops  suggested  in  the  crop 
rotation  draw  upon  the  soil  fertility  in  the  proportions  shown  in 
the  following  table. 


PLANNING  THE   FARM 


343 


DIFFERENT  CROPS  REMOVE  PLANT  FOODS  IN   DIFFERENT   PROPORTIONS 

PER  TON 


NITROGEN 

PHOSPHORUS 

POTASH 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Corn       .     •     .     .     . 

-22  4. 

1^.8 

8.0 

Wheat    

39-6 

17.2 

10.6 

Oats            .... 

3Q  6 

16.2 

II.  2 

Blue  grass       . 

6.6 

1.9 

White  clover    .     .     . 

74 

1.8 

8.1 

Red  clover  hay    .     . 

41.0 

7.8 

32.6 

Alfalfa  hay      .     .     .. 

47.6 

10.8 

44.6 

Soybean  hay    . 

25-6 

6.8 

23-3 

Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  different  crops  remove  slightly  dif- 
ferent quantities  of  plant  foods,  and  since  they  remove  plant  foods 
from  different  layers  of  the  soil,  they  protect  the  soil  fertility. 
The  legumes  also  store  considerable  quantities  of  nitrogen  in  the 
soil ;  and  the  nitrogen  content  will  be  almost  maintained  by  the 
above  cropping  system.  Especially  is  this  true  if  most  of  the 
feeds  are  fed  on  the  farm.  The  suggested  crops  will  also  leave  a 
large  quantity  of  organic  matter  on  the  soil.  The  stubble  and 
aftermath  grown  on  the  hay  fields,  the  mat  of  fibrous  roots  of 
the  grasses,  and  the  long  tap  roots  of  the  legumes  will  help  to 
maintain  the  organic  matter  and  the  humus  supply. 

6.  The  above  farm  is  so  planned  that  the  crops  grown  will 
provide  a  balanced  ration  for  all  animals.  A  balanced  ration 
is  essential  for  best  results  with  all  farm  animals.  A  balanced 
ration  comprises  proper  amounts  of  carbohydrates,  fats,  protein, 
and  ash  nutrients.  The  feeds  produced  in  the  rotation  suggested 
on  the  above  farm  will  furnish,  if  compounded  properly,  well- 
balanced  rations.  It  will  probably  be  advisable  to  add  a  small 
quantity  of  bone  meal  or  cottonseed  meal  in  some  instances  to 
give  best  results.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  feeds  required  by 


344 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


most  animals  is  about  as  i :  5.5.  This  requirement  is  closely 
approached  by  many  of  the  feeds  grown ;  and  if  feeds  are  com- 
bined, the  proper  balance  in  the  ration  may  be  closely  approxi- 
mated, as  the  following  shows  : 


DRY 
MATTER 

CRUDE 
PROTEIN 

CARBOHY- 
DRATES 

FAT 

NUTRITIVE 
RATIO 

ioo  pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Blue  grass  f  or  60%  .     . 

18.9 

1.38 

8.8 

0.36 

White  clover  f  or  40% 

8.9 

1.24 

3-84 

O.20 

Total 

27.8 

2.62 

1  2.64 

Oc  f\ 

T    '     f    •! 

*  o 

x  •  o-o 

Alfalfa  hay 

QI  A 

10.6 

I  !  3.9 

ioo  pounds 

y*  •*¥ 

Corn  silage  60%    .     .     . 

15.78 

0.66 

9.0 

0.42 

Soybeans  40%  .... 

9.68 

1.24 

4.28 

O.20 

Total 

2?  4.6 

i  .90 

13.28 

0.62 

I  '  7  7 

Oats         ... 

•*  j'*r'"' 
90.8 

80 

52.1 

i  8 

a.  .  /  .  / 

i  :  6.3 

Red  clover  hay      .     .     . 

87.I 

u.y 
7.6 

39-3 

O  " 

1.8 

ioo  pounds 

Wheat  straw     .... 

45-8 

0.35 

17-5 

0.25 

Oat  straw     

44.2 

0.50 

21.3 

0.45 

Total     

oo.o 

O.85 

18.8 

o  70 

i  :  47.0 

VW.v/ 

O 

W.  j  W 

*  *fr« 

Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  a  pasture  composed  of  blue  grass 
60  per  cent  and  white  clover  40  per  cent  provides  an  excellent 
ration  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i :  5.3.  It  is  also  well  known 
that  a  silage  feed  consisting  of  corn  silage  60  per  cent  and  soybeans 
40  per  cent  is  a  fine  ration.  But  since  the  nutritive  ratio  is  i :  7.7, 
it  requires  a  nitrogenous  supplement.  Red  clover,  with  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  i :  5.7,  is  a  fine  ration  by  itself;  yet  some  concen- 
trates fed  along  with  the  other  seeds  will  improve  the  ration 
a  great  deal. 

The  legumes  and  grasses  grown  on  this  farm  also  supply  the 


PLANNING  THE   FARM 


345 


mineral  ingredients  in  about  the  right  amounts  and  proportions. 
A  working  horse,  a  fat-producing  animal,  a  growing  animal,  and 
a  milk-producing  animal  require  a  good  deal  of  mineral  matter 
in  their  feed. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  per 
1000  pounds  of  various  feeds  and  the  bodies  of  animals. 

POUNDS  OF  MINERAL  MATTER  IN  1000  POUNDS 


PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 

POTASH 

LIME 

MAGNESIA 

Cattle     

TCO 

2  O 

16  o 

O  7O 

Swine 

6  q 

I  4. 

6  3 

O  32 

II.O 

1.6 

J-2    O 

0.^2 

Bone  of  man    

?6  e 

O  32 

rj.  -2 

I  Od 

Bone  of  cattle 

"27    A 

o  18 

err  2 

I  (X 

Milk            

2.Q 

I  7 

D**f 

I  7 

•  •wj 

o  20 

Blue  grass 

5    A 

21  O 

A  3 

3  6 

White  clover    

3.0 

l6  3 

16  o 

4.  S 

Shelled  oats          

6  8 

23  3 

17  2 

TO  3 

3.0 

16.3 

16  o 

4.cr 

Alfalfa                   .     .     .     .     . 

5    A 

22  3 

10  <\ 

r  Q 

Wheat  bran 

2Q  Z 

16  2 

o  o 

7  •? 

Cottonseed  meal  

26  7 

18  i 

3  6 

86 

It  is  well  known  that  90  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  in  the  bone 
ash  is  composed  of  lime  and  phosphorus.  From  the  above  table 
it  may  also  be  observed  that  the  grasses  and  grass  products, 
such  as  bran,  are  very  low  in  lime.  The  legumes  have  a  high 
lime  content.  On  the  other  hand,  grasses  have  a  high  phosphorus 
content;  while  the  legumes  are  somewhat  lower.  When  both 
legumes  and  grasses  are  fed  the  mineral  requirements  of  animals 
are  fairly  well  supplied.  The  one  feed  supplements  the  other 
in  animal  nutrition ;  not  only  in  the  mineral  requirements,  but 
in  the  nitrogenous  and  carbonaceous  requirements  as  well.  It 


346  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

is  now  well  known  that  many  animal  diseases,  such  as  abortion, 
contagious  abortion,  and  rickets,  and  low  vitality,  which  is  the 
cause  of  many  diseases,  may  be  prevented  to  a  large  extent  by 
proper  feeding. 

7.  The  above  farm  provides  several  sources  of  income.  The 
grain  and  grass  products  are  the  principal  sources.  Other  sources 
are :  (a)  the  wheat  may  be  sold  as  a  cash  crop ;  (b)  about  half 
of  the  oats  may  be  sold  as  a  cash  crop ;  (c)  about  one  third  of  the 
alfalfa  may  be  sold  as  a  cash  crop ;  (d)  eggs  and  poultry  to  a 
limited  extent  may  be  sold  ;  (e)  occasionally  a  colt  may  be  sold  ; 
and  (/)  some  cattle  and  hogs  may  be  sold. 

Farm  surveys  made  in  various  sections  of  the  United  States 
show  that  farms  having  several  sources  of  income  produce  greater 
profits  than  do  those  farms  having  only  one  or  two  sources  of 
income.  Thus  in  one  farm  survey,  27  farms  having  two  or  three 
sources  of  income  had  a  yearly  profit  of  $287  ;  while  29  farms 
that  had  five  or  more  sources  of  income  made  a  profit  of  $702 
yearly. 

Application:  The  fundamental  principles  underlying  the  plan 
and  operation  of  the  typical  farm  used  as  a  basis  for  the  discussion 
in  this  chapter  may  be  employed  in  the  management  of  any  farm 
regardless  of  size.  Of  course  the  details  of  operation  may  need 
changes  in  a  great  many  instances. 

Summary.  —  Farms  that  are  well  planned  must  provide  for 
diversity  of  crops  properly  rotated,  for  proper  distribution  of 
labor,  for  long  rectangular  fields  and  pastures  which  are  accessible 
to  the  farmstead,  for  the  protection  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  for 
several  sources  of  income,  for  the  growing  of  such  crops  as  will 
provide  a  balanced  ration  for  every  farm  animal.  Practically 
all  of  the  suggestions  of  the  chapter  can  be  applied  in  the  operation 
of  the  average  farm,  with  such  modifications  as  local  conditions 
necessitate. 


PLANNING  THE   FARM  347 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Draw  a  plan  of  your  home  farm  or  some  neighbor's  farm.     Then 
replan  same  and  state  wherein  your  plan  is  superior  to  the  original  plan. 

2.  Get    from   some    farmer   information    regarding    the  crop  rotation 
practiced  on  his  farm. 

3.  Get  from  several  farmers  their  sources  of  income   and  the  amount 
received  from  each  source. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
FARM  BOOKKEEPING 

Reasons  for  bookkeeping  on  the  farm.  —  Bookkeeping  on  the 
farm  has  the  following  advantages : 

1.  The  farmer  may  know  whether  he  is  making  or  losing, 
whether  his  assets  are  increasing  or  decreasing. 

2.  If  books  are  kept,  the  farmer  may  know  just  what  each 
particular  line  of  farming  is  doing.     He  knows  whether  it  is 
increasing  or  decreasing  his  profits.     Often  farmers  think  that  a 
certain  line  of  farming  is  profitable  when  it  really  is  not ;    and 
conversely,  often  the  stock  or  crops  they  think  are  losing  money 
may  be  the  most  profitable. 

3.  Farm   bookkeeping   makes   farming   systematic.     In   this 
way  farm  records  are  as  important  to  the  farmer  as  banking 
records  are  to  the  banker. 

4.  It  will  bring  larger  dividends  for  the  amount  of  time  spent 
upon  it  than  an  equal  time  spent  upon  any  other  farm  operation. 

What  books  to  keep.  —  All  bookkeeping  should  be  simple.     A 
definite  plan  should  be  followed,  including  the  following  points : 

1.  An  inventory 

2.  Accounts  of  different  crops 

3.  Accounts  of  different  kinds  of  stock 

4.  Accounts  of  the  poultry 

5.  Accounts  of  the  orchard,  garden,  and  pasture 

Note  to  the  Teacher :    The  materials  needed  to  do  the  Laboratory  Ex- 
ercises and  Home  Projects  suggested  at  the  close  of  this  chapter  are : 

Forms  on  which  pupils  can  make  an  inventory  of  a  farm,  farm  receipts 
and  expenditures. 

348 


FARM  BOOKKEEPING 


349 


Farm  inventory.  —  An  inventory  taken  yearly  of  the  farm 
stock,  poultry,  crops,  buildings,  and  machinery  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  the  farm  records.  This  farm  inventory  may  be 
taken  at  any  time  of  the  year.  Some  farmers  take  their  inven- 
tory January  first ;  others  may  prefer  to  take  theirs  in  March, 
April,  or  May.  At  the  close  of  the  year  another  inventory  should 
be  taken.  Values  placed  upon  things  in  the  inventory  should 
be  average  values.  To  put  the  values  too  high  or  too  low  defeats 
the  purpose  of  an  inventory. 

SAMPLE  FARM  INVENTORY  —  APRIL  i 


No. 

RATE 

1922 

1923 

1924 

IQ2S 

1926 

Land     .     .     . 

160  A. 

$50.00 

$8000 

100  A. 

52.00 

$5200 

Horses  .     .     . 

5 

108.00 

540 

4 

112.00 

448 

Colts     .    .    . 

Continue  this  method  for  dairy  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry, 
farm  machinery,  farm  products,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  hay,  etc. 
The  divisions  and  topics  included  in  the  farm  inventory  depend 
on  local  conditions  and  individual  farmers.  Itemizing  machinery 
will  depend  upon  the  taste  of  the  individual  farmer.  Taking  the 
inventory  in  considerable  detail  may  prove  satisfactory  in  later 


350 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


years.     By  the  above  outline,  inventories  may  be  kept  for  five 
successive  years. 

Another  type  of  inventory  is  the  following : 1 


1 .  Real  estate : 

Land  (160  acres  at  $50.00) 
Improvements : 

40  rods  tile  drain  at  $3.00 

240  rods  woven  wire  fence  at  70^ 

2.  Buildings : 
House 
Barn 

Other  buildings 

3.  Live  stock: 

Four  horses  at  $175.00 
Ten  cows  at  $60.00 
Six  brood  sows  at  $20.00 
Twenty  sheep  at  $8.00 
Seventy-five  hens  at  40^ 

4.  Implements  and  tools : 
One  plow 

One  grain  drill 

(List  each  machine  on  the  farm  as  above.) 

Tools.     (List  separately  all  tools  valued  at  $2.00 

or  more.    Those  under  $2.00  may  be  included 

in  a  lump  sum  as  hand  tools.) 

5.  Operating  capital : 
Check  account  at  bank 
Cash  in  pocket 

6.  Feed  and  supplies : 
300  bushels  oats  at  30^ 
Two  tons  bran  at  $22.00 
Twenty  tons  of  hay  at  $7.00 
Two  bushels  clover  seed  at  $9.00 


$8 


,000.00 

I2O.OO 
168.00 

,000.00 

,500.00 

800.00 

700.00 
600.00 

120.00 

160.00 

30-00 

12.00 
45-00 


20.00 

72.00 
22.50 


5,288.00 


4,300.00 


1, 6lO.OO 


77.00 


94-50 


QO.OO 
44.00 

I4O.OO 

iS.OO  292.00 

$14,661.50 


Farm  receipts.  —  The  income  of  the  farm  may  be  kept  in 
different  forms.  The  following  is  suggestive  for  the  income  from 
chickens : 

"Farm  Management." 


FARM   BOOKKEEPING 
EGG  RECORD  —  YEAR  1922 


351 


JAN. 


FEB. 


MAR. 


APRIL 


MAY 


JUNE 


JULY 


AUG. 


SEPT. 


OCT. 


Nov. 


DEC. 


352 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 


The  above  gives  a  detailed  record  for  the  poultry  flock  for  the 
year.  Receipts  for  fowls  that  are  sold  may  be  recorded  in  the 
above  table.  If  studied  with  the  inventory,  it  will  give  a  fair 
notion  of  the  profit  from  hens. 

Records  of  dairy  cows  and  of  the  herd  may  be  kept  in  a  similar 
way,  with  slight  changes.  No  up-to-date  dairyman  will  handle 
a  herd  without  keeping  each  cow's  record. 

Receipts  of  other  farm  products  may  be  recorded  in  the 
simplest  fashion  possible.  The  following  is  one  way  in  which 
such  a  record  may  be  kept : 


DATE 


KIND  AND  AMOUNT  SOLD 


PRICE 


VALUE 


In  this  table  all  receipts  may  be  summarized  for  the  year,  and 
the  total  income  for  the  year  be  found. 

Farm  expenditures.  —  To  keep  an  accurate  record  of  farm 
expenditures  is  just  as  important  as  to  keep  the  farm  receipts. 
Monthly  expenditures  for  groceries,  clothing,  feed,  and  imple- 
ments should  be  kept.  The  following  form  may  aid  in  keeping 
this  record : 


FARM   BOOKKEEPING 


353 


DATE 

JAN. 

FEB. 

MAR. 

APR. 

MAY 

JUNE 

JULY 

AUG. 

SEPT. 

OCT. 

Nov. 

DEC. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1C 

ii 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

3° 

31 

Total     ex- 
penditure 

354  LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 

If  an  inventory  has  been  carefully  taken,  and  the  yearly  income 
and  expenditure  are  known,  the  financial  standing  may  be  easily 
figured.  If  the  inventory  remained  the  same,  and  the  total  in- 
come for  the  year  was  $980  and  the  expenditure  $590,  then  the 
financial  gain  would  be  the  difference  between  $980  and  $590,  or 
$390.  So  if  the  inventory  remains  the  same,  the  profits  or  losses 
may  be  found  by  subtracting  the  expenditures  from  the  receipts. 
If  the  inventory  increases,  the  increase  may  be  added  to  the 
profits.  If  it  decreases,  it  should  be  subtracted  from  the  income. 

These  simple  suggestions  in  farm  bookkeeping  will  help  in 
putting  the  farm  practices  on  a  better  business  footing. 

Summary.  —  Farm  inventories  taken  yearly  are  the  most  im- 
portant records  a  farmer  can  keep.  Good  judgment  should  be 
exercised  in  placing  estimates  on  the  value  of  things  recorded  in 
the  inventory.  Farm  receipts  will  show  in  a  general  way  the 
profit  from  various  farm  operations.  Keeping  a  record  of  ex- 
penditures is  also  worth  while.  If  the  inventory  remains  the 
same,  the  receipts  and  expenditures  will  show  quickly  the  finan- 
cial standing  of  the  farm.  This  is  as  important  to  the  farmer 
as  is  the  bank's  standing  to  the  banker. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Take  an  inventory  of  some  farm,  according  to  the  plan  above  sug- 
gested.    Record  the  inventory  under  different  headings,  as  shown  in  the 
paragraph  on  the  farm  inventory. 

2.  Keep  the  income  of  a  farm  for  a  month.     Pupil  and  teacher  may 
devise  a  plan  for  keeping  the  receipts. 

3.  Have  pupils  keep  in  a  suitable  form  the  expenditures  in  their  home 
for  one  month.     Compare  receipts  and  expenditures  for  the  month. 

4.  From  the  inventory  taken  in  Exercise  i ,  figure  the  per  cent  of  money 
invested  in  each  part  of  the  farm. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
FARM   LABOR 

Economy  of  farm  labor.  —  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
average  farm  horse  in  the  Northern  States  works  3.5  hours  a 
day.  The  average  number  of  hours  worked  by  the  farmers  and 
their  hired  hands  does  not  exceed  5 'hours  a  day.  If  it  costs  35 
cents  to  keep  a  horse  a  day,  his  labor  is  worth  10  cents  an  hour. 
If  man's  labor  is  worth  $1.50  a  day,  his  labor  costs  30  cents  an 
hour.  If  we  double  the  number  of  hours  worked  a  day  on  an 
average,  and  if  labor  can  be  employed  profitably,  the  cost  of 
labor  is  reduced  one  half. 

O.  R.  Johnson  l  found  that  the  average  number  of  hours  worked 
a  day  by  horses  on  three  different  farms  was  3.9  hours,  and  r^y 
man  9.9  hours.  He  also  found  that  men  on  these  farms  worked 
3272.3  hours  a  year,  and  that  each  horse  worked  1216.6  hours  a 
year. 

Factors  that  prevent  an  equal  distribution  of  farm  labor.  - 
The  seasonal  nature  of  farm  work  is  one  of  the  greatest  factors 
affecting  the  constant  employment  of  horse  and  man  labor. 
Most  of  the  production  and  harvesting  of  crops  comes  in  the 
summer  season.  Horses  and  men  are  both  worked  hard  during 
the  summer  months.  In  winter  months  men  and  horses  are 
idle  a  large  part  of  the  time.  To  illustrate  the  amount  of  horse 

Note  to  the  Teacher :  Follow  suggestions  at  close  of  chapter. 
1  Missouri  Bulletin,  No.  36. 
355 


356 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


and  man  labor  in  the  production  of  a  timothy  hay  crop,  the  fol- 
lowing graph  is  given : l 


100  HR.    200  HR.    300  HR.    400  HR.     500  HR.     600  HR. 


JAN.    < 

=3 

I 

£j 

-.{ 

} 

MAR.    J 

=3 

1 

MAY.   < 

^~ 

^ysy^yi 

™ 

JUNE  | 

( 

^i^^?^ 

3 

JULY  J 

AUG.  | 

^^^ 

SEPT.    J 

-^ 

OCT.  { 

==1 

I 

NOV.   < 

ID 

DEC'{ 

_, 

GRAPH  7.  —  Hours  of  labor  given  to  67  acres  of  timothy  hay.  The  upper  line  in  each 
month  represents  man  labor ;  the  lower,  horse  labor.  The  black  and  the  gray  lines  indicate 
time  given  to  seeding,  haying,  etc. ;  and  the  white  lines,  manuring,  baling,  marketing,  etc. 

1  All  data  for  graphs,  unless  otherwise  stated,  are  taken  from  Warren's  "Farm 
Management." 


FARM  LABOR  357 

Analyzing  the  above  graph,  we  find  that  the  number  of  hours 
of  man  labor  given  to  the  production  of  67  acres  of  timothy  hay 
was  1025,  and  that  more  than  half  of  this  labor  was  required 
during  the  month  of  July.  The  amount  of  horse  labor  required 
to  produce  the  67  acres  of  timothy  hay  was  1125  hours.  Al- 
most half  of  this  time  (475  hr.)  was  used  in  the  month  of  July. 
If  this  is  the  only  crop  produced,  the  labor  of  man  and  horse 
is  employed  about  one  half  of  the  time.  This  means  unemploy- 
ment, and  that  the  cost  of  both  man  and  horse  labor  is  doubled. 

The  demands  for  both  horse  and  man  labor  are  greater  in  the 
summer  months.  Practically  all  the  crops  need  a  great  deal 
more  attention  in  summer  than  during  other  seasons  of  the 
year. 

Another  factor  that  prevents  equal  distribution  of  farm  labor 
is  the  unequal  sizes  of  fields.  To  devote  about  the  same  acreage 
to  the  same  crops  from  year  to  year  has  a  tendency  to  make  farm 
labor  more  stable.  The  farmer  can  plan  his  labor  fairly  well  if 
he  tends  40  acres  respectively  of  corn,  wheat,  pats,  and  alfalfa 
hay.  But  if  he  omits  one  of  these  crops  for  a  year,  his  general 
scheme  of  labor  may  become  entirely  unbalanced. 

A  third  factor  that  prevents  an  equal  distribution  of  farm 
labor  is  the  kind  of  farming  practiced.  As  was  illustrated  above, 
timothy  farming  requires  about  half  of  the  labor  in  the  month 
of  July,  or,  in  other  words,  half  of  the  work  must  be  done  in  one 
twelfth  of  the  year.  Similarly,  wheat  producers,  cattle  growers, 
corn  raisers,  and  other  farmers  producing  one  product  have  most 
of  their  work  during  a  few  months  of  the  year. 

Working  only  a  few  months  of  the  year  means  high-priced 
labor.  If  a  man  works  only  one  twelfth  of  the  time,  his  labor 
must  be  rated  high.  If  2400  hours  constitutes  a  year's  work, 
worth  fifteen  cents  an  hour,  his  labor  is  worth  $360,  but  to  pay 
$360  for  a  month's  labor  of  thirty  days  of  ten  hours  each, 


358 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


makes  the  cost  of  labor  $1.20  an  hour.  Horse  labor  may  be 
figured  likewise.  To  feed,  stable,  and  care  for  a  horse  for  365 
days  when  he  works  only  a  few  days,  makes  the  cost  of  horse 
labor  very  high. 

Distribution  of  labor  with  different  crops.  —  In  the  produc- 
tion of  oats,  April,  July,  and  August  are  the  busy  months.  Sow- 
ing time  is  in  April,  and  July  and  August  are  the  months  of  har- 
vest. The  following  graphs  give  an  idea  of  the  distribution  of 
horse  and  man  labor  in  the  cultivation  of  stated  amounts  of 
several  crops : 


100HR.     200  HR.     300  HR.    400  HR.     500  HR.     600  HR. 


JAN. 


DEC 


GRAPH  8.  —  Hours  of  labor  given  to  23  acres  of  oats.  The  upper  line  in  each  month 
represents  man  labor ;  the  lower,  horse  labor.  The  black  and  the  gray  lines  represent  time 
given  to  sowing,  harvesting,  etc. ;  the  white,  to  threshing  and  plowing. 


JAN. 

FEB. 

MAR. 

APRIL 

MAY 

JUNE 

JULY 
AUG. 

SEPT. 
OCT. 
NOV. 
DEC. 


100  HR.    200  HR.     300  HR.     400  HR.     500  HR.      600  HR, 


GRAPH  9.  —  Hours  of  labor  given  to  23  acres  of  wheat.  The  upper  line  in  each  month 
represents  man  labor;  the  lower,  horse  labor.  The  black  and  the  gray  lines  represent 
time  given  to  harvesting,  threshing,  etc. ;  the  white  line,  to  plowing,  etc. 


100  HR.     200  HR.     300  HR.      400  HR.     500  HR.     600  HR. 


SEPT. 


NOV. 
DEC. 

GRAPH  10.  —  Hours  of  labor  given  to  n  acres  of  potatoes.  The  upper  line  in  each 
month  represents  man  labor ;  the  lower,  horse  labor ;  the  black  and  the  gray  lines,  time 
given  to  planting,  cultivating,  digging,  etc. ;  the  white,  to  plowing  and  marketing. 

359 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


JAN. 

FEB. 

MAR. 

APRIL      J 

£ 

MAY          I 
I 

JUNE        { 

\ 

JULY        ^ 

^^•Sj 

AUG. 

SEPT.       < 

OCT. 

NOV. 

DEC. 

. 

GRAPH  n.  —  Hours  of  labor  given  to  14  acres  of  silage  corn.  The  upper  line  in  each 
month  represents  man  labor ;  the  lower,  horse  labor ;  black  and  gray  lines  represent  plant- 
ing, cultivating,  harvesting ;  white  lines  represent  plowing. 

From  the  foregoing  graphs  it  will  be  observed  that,  in  crop 
production,  the  greatest  part  of  both  man  and  horse  labor  is 
demanded  in  the  summer  months. 

Farming  is  a  seasonal  occupation,  an  occupation  that  can  be 
carried  on  better  in  one  season  of  the  year  than  another.  It  is 
important  that  the  farm  be  managed  so  that  every  season  shall 
have  suitable  and  paying  work. 

Professor  O.  R.  Johnson  l  has  tabulated  the  man  and  horse 
labor  requirements  of  common  crops  on  the  basis  of  hours  for 
each  acre  production.  And  for  the  crops,  oats,  wheat,  timothy, 
and  corn  he  gives  us  the  following  interesting  data : 

JIn  Bulletin  No.  6  of  the  Agricultural  College,  Columbia,  Missouri. 


FARM   LABOR 


361 


MAN  AND  HORSE  LABOR  REQUIREMENTS  OF  COMMON  CROPS,  PER 
ACREAGE  PRODUCTION 


OATS 

WHEAT 

TIMOTHY 

CORN 

Man, 

Horse, 

Man, 

Horse, 

Man, 

Horse, 

Man, 

Horse, 

Hours 

Hours 

Hours 

Hours 

Hours 

Hours 

Hours 

Hours 

Jan. 

•55 

.28 

Feb.     . 

.48 

.10 

March 

2.Q2 

6.65 

•i5 

April    . 

1.32 

2-93 

. 

1.84 

4-57 

May    . 

.26 

•79 

6.38 

14.09 

June    . 

I.  II 

.87 

3-2 

3-2 

.48 

.63 

6.72 

10.91 

July     . 

3-50 

3-69 

6-4 

6-5 

6.  02 

9.02 

2.14 

3-25 

Aug.     . 

1.16 

1.29 

1.62 

3-i 

1.84 

1.17 

Sept.    . 

•i7 

.21 

2.70 

5-i 

5-03 

i-73 

Oct.     . 

4.2 

7-3 

.78 

.72 

Nov.    . 

.26 

•5 

3-i4 

1.77 

Dec.     . 

2-55 

1.61 

Totals 

10.44 

16.43 

18.38 

25-7 

6.50 

9-65 

31.60 

40.20 

This  table  likewise  shows  the  distribution  of  labor  required 
to  produce  an  acre  of  the  crop  indicated.  Of  course  the  amount 
of  horse  and  man  labor  will  vary  with  seasons,  location,  and 
type  of  implement  used.  But  it  may  be  concluded  that  with 
the  production  of  the  above  crops  neither  horse  nor  man  labor 
can  be  steadily  employed. 

Two  examples  of  fairly  constant  distribution  of  farm  labor.  - 
The  first  illustration  is   taken  from   the   1911    United   States 
Yearbook  of  Agriculture.     It  shows  the  estimated  distribution 
of  labor  on  a  24O-acre  farm,  where  80  acres  each  of  corn,  wheat, 
timothy,  and  clover  hay  are  grown.     (Graph  12.) 

The  months  are  divided  into  the  ten-day  periods.  One  man 
and  four  horses  did  all  the  work,  except  a  little  labor  that  was 


362 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


employed  in  June,  July,  August,  September,  and  November  as 
indicated.  In  the  farm  there  were  six  fields  of  forty  acres  each, 
and  the  rotation  was  corn,  corn,  wheat,  wheat,  hay,  hay.  The 
constant  distribution  of  farm  labor  will  be  noted. 


JUNE  JULY  AUGUST          SEPT,  OST.  NOV.  DEC 


10 


GRAPH  12.  —  Estimated  distribution  of  labor  on  80  acres  each  of  corn,  wheat,  and  timothy 
hay,  and  of  clover  hay  in  the  latitude  of  Missouri.  One  man  and  four  horses  regularly  em- 
ployed. Extra  man  labor  at  harvest.  Rotation :  corn,  corn,  wheat,  wheat,  hay,  hay. 

The  second  illustration  is  taken  from  Warren's  "  Farm  Manage- 
ment." It  shows  the  distribution  of  man  labor  on  eighteen  cows 
that  are  being  milked,  and  eleven  other  cows.  (Graph  13.) 


FARM  LABOR  363 


HOURS 
50Q 


J&n.  Feb.  MAR.  Apa  /V\«\Y  June  July  Ao^.  Sept.  Oct.  Afov.   Dec 


GRAPH  13.  —  Distribution  of  man  labor  on  18  cows  and  n  other  cattle.     White  is  milk 

hauling. 

From  this  graph  it  will  be  observed  that  dairying  furnishes 
constant  employment  the  year  round.  The  conclusions  that 
are  drawn  should  pertain  to  farm  labor. 

Factors  helping  in  the  distribution  of  labor.  —  The  preceding 
paragraphs  illustrate  that  diversification  of  farm  operations 
tends  to  distribute  farm  labor. 

Planning  work  and  keeping  a  daily  schedule  of  work  helps 
distribute  farm  labor.  A  well-planned  labor  schedule  will  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  farm  work  from  5  to  10  per  cent.  As  a 
rainy-day  schedule  the  following  may  be  suggestive :  clean  grain, 
test  seed  corn  and  other  seed  for  germination;  repair  gates, 
doors,  windows ;  oil  machinery,  wagons,  carriages,  and  harnesses ; 
paint  interior  of  buildings,  hayracks ;  sharpen  tools  and  imple- 
ments; clean  and  whitewash  poultry  houses;  prepare  feeds; 
bring  farm  accounts  up  to  date;  and  read  agricultural  papers 
and  books. 

The  planning  of  work  to  cover  an  entire  year  is  one  of  the 
greatest  aids  in  the  distribution  of  farm  labor.  With  a  well- 


364  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

planned  "  labor  schedule  "  the  congestion  of  certain  seasons 
may  be  largely  avoided. 

A  man  who  plans  his  work  well  does  not  have  to  get  his  plow 
sharpened  or  fixed  on  the  day  when  he  can  plow.  The  binder, 
cultivator,  and  other  tools  will  be  ready  for  work  when  the 
right  time  arrives  to  use  them.  Seed  corn  will  have  been  tested 
several  weeks  before  it  is  to  be  used.  Overhauling,  repairing, 
and  other  work  may  be  done  at  odd  times  and  will  not  interfere 
with  the  work  of  planting,  harvesting,  and  cultivating  important 
crops.  Preparing  bins  and  granaries  will  precede  their  use  a 
week  or  two.  A  work  schedule  will  economize  labor.  Johnson 
says :  "  With  a  well-planned  labor  schedule  the  manager  will 
never  send  the  men  to  cut  brush  along  the  fence  rows  when  the 
binder  must  be  overhauled  for  wheat  cutting  to-morrow,  or  the 
day  after,  or  the  granaries  made  ready  for  threshing.  When 
planting  time  begins,  the  first  day  or  two  of  good  weather  will 
not  be  wasted  in  getting  seed  cleaned  or  getting  the  machinery 
in  running  order."  l 

Summary.  —  Farm  labor  is  often  not  well  distributed.  The 
fact  that  men  and  horses  work  so  few  hours  during  the  year 
increases  the  cost  of  their  labor,  but  decreases  the  opportunities 
of  the  farmer  to  do  a  great  amount  of  work.  Most  farm  crops 
demand  the  labor  devoted  to  them  in  the  summer  season.  Dairy- 
ing and  diversified  farming  tend  to  distribute  farm  labor,  and 
give  constant  employment  —  two  desirable  points  in  farm  man- 
agement. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  HOME  PROJECTS 

i.  Have  pupils  bring  a  statement  of  the  actual  number  of  hours  a 
farmer  worked  for  one  week.  If  his  labor  is  worth  $360  a  year,  what  is 
the  value  of  his  labor  an  hour  according  to  the  answer  to  the  first  sentence 
of  this  exercise  ? 

1  Bulletin  No.  6,  Missouri  Station. 


FARM  LABOR  365 

2.  Pupils  are  to  secure  from  some  farmer  an  estimate  of  the  number 
of  days  (reduced  to  hours)  of  both  horse  and  man  labor  necessary  to  pro- 
duce some  crop  per  acre  which  he  plans  to  raise  the  following  year.     The 
distribution  of  labor  should  be  graphed  by  the  pupils  according  to  its  dis- 
tribution by  months. 

3.  If  man  labor  is  worth  18  cents  an  hour,  and  horse  labor  is  worth 
9  cents  an  hour,  what  is  the  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  oats,  of  wheat, 
and  of  corn,  according  to  Johnson's  data? 

4.  Name  six  or  eight  things  that  may  be  done  during  a  rainy  day. 

5.  If  there  is  a  dairy  farm  in  the  neighborhood,  have  the  proprietor 
estimate  by  months  the  number  of  hours  of  man  and  horse  labor  required 
to  care  for  it  a  year.     The  results  should  be  illustrated  by  a  graph. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
EFFICIENT   MARKETING   OF  FARM   PRODUCTS 

Agriculture  more  than  production.  —  Efficient  and  economic 
production  will  always  be  fundamental  in  farm  operations. 
Efficient  and  economic  production  is  hampered  by  adverse 
weather  and  insect  pests.  It  is  seldom  that  the  farmer  gets  more 
than  a  half  crop.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  fact,  poor  conditions  for 
distribution  discourage  the  farmer  more  in  his  work  than  do 
adverse  conditions  in  production. 

A  few  suggestions  will  be  given  on  efficient  marketing  of  farm 
products.  These  suggestions  are  only  general,  for  each  locality, 
according  to  the  commodities  produced,  must  finally  work  out 
its  own  problems.  There  will  doubtless  be  a  good  many  excep- 
tions to  the  suggestions  given,  for  marketing  of  farm  products 
is  probably  the  most  complex  of  all  problems  confronting  the 
farmer.  This  chapter  will  deal  with  the  larger  principles  of 
marketing,  and  with  the  major  farm  products  only. 

General  conditions  affecting  the  market.  —  These  are  many 
and  various,  but  the  more  important  ones  will  be  discussed  in 
the  following  paragraphs : 

i.  Seasonal  production  interferes  with  efficient  marketing  of 
farm  products.  If  the  farmer  could  store  his  products  and  if  he 
had  good  roads  so  that  he  could  market  them  any  day  of  the  year, 
and  preferably  a  major  portion  in  winter,  his  profits  would  be 
greater  and  the  consumer  would  be  better  supplied.  But  very 
often  lack  of  funds  on  the  part  of  the  farmer  compels  him  to  sell 
his  product  as  soon  as  produced.  Moreover,  perishable  products, 

366 


EFFICIENT   MARKETING   OF   FARM   PRODUCTS        367 


such  as  vegetables,  melons,  and  some  fruits,  must  be  sold  during 
the  season  when  produced.  If  marketing  is  to  be  most  efficient, 
the  product  marketed  must  be  of  good  quality,  and  one  fifty- 
second  of  the  product  must  be  well  distributed  weekly. 

When  do  farmers  sell  their  products?  They  sell  the  major 
part  of  their  products  when  they  are  produced  and  harvested. 
The  following  table  from  the  Crop  Reporter  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  shows  this  to  be  true. 

WHEN  FARMERS  SELL  THEIR  CROPS,  EXPRESSED  IN  PERCENTAGES.  TABLE 
SHOWS  SIX-YEAR  AVERAGES 


WHEAT 

CORN 

OATS 

COTTON 

POTATOES 

EGGS 

LIVE  STOCK 

Jan.      . 

6.1 

I3.8 

7.0 

9.0 

4.0 

3-3 

10.3 

Feb.      . 

5-3 

10.8 

6.7 

5-9 

4.0 

4-7 

8.1 

March  . 

4.0 

6-7 

5-o 

5-2 

6.4 

12.8 

9.2 

April    . 

3-6 

5-i 

4.2 

3-7 

6-5 

16.8 

8.2 

May     . 

3-9 

6.8 

5-7 

2.2 

4-9 

15-3 

6.2 

June     . 

3-7 

6-3 

5-9 

1.6 

3-9 

11.9 

7.4 

July      . 

12.4 

4-7 

8.0 

i.i 

6.1 

8-7 

5-3 

Aug.     . 

13-5 

6.1 

17.1 

1.2 

8.7 

7-6 

5-5 

Sept.     . 

15-5 

6.1 

13-3 

I4.I 

14.1 

6-4 

8.7 

Oct.      . 

13.8 

6-3 

«-3 

21.8 

24-5 

5-3 

n.8 

Nov.     . 

10.  0 

11.4 

7-7 

19.8 

n.6 

3-9 

9.8 

Dec.     . 

8.2 

ISO 

8.1 

14-4 

5-3 

3-3 

9-5 

Total    . 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

The  table  shows  that  about  52  per  cent  of  the  wheat  crop  is 
sold  in  four  months'  time ;  that  41  per  cent  of  the  oat  crop  is 
sold  in  three  months'  time ;  that  over  40  per  cent  of  the  cotton 
crop  is  sold  in  two  months'  time ;  and  that  57  per  cent  of  the 
egg  crop  is  sold  in  four  months'  time.  What  effect  does  this  have 
upon  the  supply?  It  means  that  at  certain  times  of  the  year 
the  market  is  oversupplied  and  that  at  other  times  the  demand 
exceeds  the  supply. 


368 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


What  effect  does  this  have  upon  the  price?  Definite  answers 
cannot  be  given  to  the  question.  But  it  is  evident  that  market- 
ing 50  per  cent  of  a 
product  in  four 
months'  time  is  bound 
to  lower  the  price,  and 
then,  when  the  supply 
decreases,  the  price  is 
certain  to  increase, 
provided  all  other 
things  are  equal. 

2.  Prices  which 
the  farmei  receives 
exhibit  a  large  geo- 
graphic variation. 
Thus  the  following 
map  shows  a  varia- 
tion of  price  on  corn, 
ranging  all  the  way 
from  45  cents  to  one 
dollar  a  bushel. 

We  can  hardly  con- 
ceive that  corn  would 


This 

Deficit 

causes 

High  Prices 

to 
Consumers 


RODUCTION 


FIG.  162.  —  Can  the  peaks  and  valleys  in  prices  which  are 
alike  injurious  to  consumer  and  producer,  be  reduced  by 
more  effective  marketing  methods?  On  the  solution  of  this 
problem  depends  the  future  of  American  agriculture. 


sell  at  45  cents  at  one 
place    and    at    one 

dollar  at  another.  Suppose  hogs  should  sell  on  a  similar  basis. 
Thus  they  might  be  $4.50  at  one  place  and  $10  at  another. 
Suppose  the  Ford  car  should  sell  for  $450  at  one  place  and 
$1000  at  another.  It  is  absurd  to  think  this.  Corn  has  been 
taken  in  this  illustration.  Similar  comparisons  could  be  made 
with  practically  all  other  farm  products,  so  far  as  prices  are 
concerned. 


EFFICIENT   MARKETING   OF   FARM   PRODUCTS        369 


How  may  the  variation  of  prices  be  made  more  equal?  By 
marketing  and  distributing  the  article  evenly  and  uniformly 
throughout  the  year,  and  by  shipping  to  those  localities  where 
prices  are  higher,  provided  the  freight  rate  to  get  the  article 
there  is  no  more  expensive. 


370  LIVE  STOCK  AND   FARM  MECHANICS 

3.  The  production  in  foreign  countries  affects  market  values. 
If,  for  illustration,  the  wheat  harvest  of  Russia,  Canada,  and 
Argentina  is  above  the  average,  it  is  bound  to  reflect  itself  in  the 
markets  of  the  United  States.     It  will  lessen  our  annual  export 
of  about  200,000,000  bushels ;  and  when  this  is  left  on  the  markets 
of  our  country  it  is  evident,  if  all  other  farm  crops  are  up  to  normal 
in  quantity,  that  wheat  prices  will  go  down. 

4.  There  is  a  world  market.     The  world  market  is  a  broad 
market  and  therefore  a  reliable  market.     The  world  market  is 
governed  by  supply  and  demand.     To-day  commodities  can  be 
directed  by  cablegrams  or  by  wireless  messages  to  any  place  in 
the  world.     Almost  any  day  in  the  year  there  are  30  million  to 
80  million  bushels  of  wheat  afloat,  which  can  be  directed  by  cable 
or  wireless  messages.     This  stabilizes  the  world  price  level.     The 
farmer  often  cannot  reconcile  local  prices  with  world  markets, 
and  for  that  reason  farmers  should  study  world-wide  production 
as  well  as  local,  state,  and  national  production,  for  the  world- 
wide price  levels  over  which  no  one  has  control  should  be  a  part 
of  every  farmer's  knowledge. 

Speculation  thrives  under  uncertainty.  Concentration  of 
information  in  the  hands  of  a  few  persons  and  lack  of  information 
on  the  part  of  the  masses  leads  to  the  wildest  schemes  of  specula- 
tion. 

Farmers  should  acquaint  themselves  with  world  conditions 
regarding  their  products,  by  reading  the  Crop  Reporter,  United 
States  Yearbooks  of  Agriculture,  and  good  farm  papers. 

5.  The  full  employment  of  all  labor,  other  than  farm  labor, 
makes  a  better  buying  public.     Unemployment  leads  to  poverty, 
and  markets  depend  upon  a  steady  money  income  of  all  the  labor- 
ing classes. 

Factors  helpful  in  efficient  marketing.  —  Some  of  the  factors 
helpful  in  efficient  marketing  are:  (i)  storage;  (2)  facilities  for 


EFFICIENT  MARKETING  OF  FARM   PRODUCTS       371 

transportation;  (3)  uniformity  of  product;  (4)  quality  of  prod- 
uct; (5)  meeting  the  demands  of  the  market;  and  (6)  coopera- 
tive marketing. 

1.  Storing  and  the  preservation  of  things  marks  a  certain 
degree  of  civilization.     Uncivilized  people  store,  save,  and  pre- 
serve very  little  for  a  future  day.     But  from  time  immemorial 
progressive  people  have  stored  and  preserved  their  food,  clothing, 
and  wealth  for  future  use.     The  year  of  plenty  must  tide  over 
the  lean  year.     So  farm  granaries,  community  elevators,  cold 
storage  plants,  wool  pools,  and  other  methods  of  storing  farm 
products  of  the  community  may  now  be  found  all  over  the  United 
States  and  other  civilized  parts  of  the  world. 

2.  Facilities  for  transporting  agricultural  products  is  a  help- 
ful factor  in  efficient  marketing.     Good  roads  that  may  be  used 
365  days  of  the  year  do  much  to  protect  both  the  producer  and 
the  consumer.     They  protect  the  producer  because  he  can  market 
his  products  in  the  winter,  and  at  any  other  time  when  his  pro- 
ductive farm  work  is  least  interfered  with.     They  protect  the 
consumer  because  the  farmer  can  distribute  the  necessities  of 
life  when  most  needed.     Efficient  railroad  service  at  a  reasonable 
cost  is  likewise  helpful  in  protecting  producer  and  consumer. 

3.  Classification  and  grading  of  farm  products  is  another  fac- 
tor which  helps  efficient  marketing.     If  a  bushel  of  potatoes  is 
sold,  half  of  them  large,  nice  potatoes,  and  the  other  half  small 
and  scabby,  it  is  evident  that  the  price  will  be  below  what  it 
should  be  ordinarily.     Again,  if  a  dozen  eggs  are  sold,  half  of 
them  extra  large  eggs  and  the  other  half  small  eggs,  the  price 
will  be  materially  lowered.     Uniform,  good  quality  farm  prod- 
ucts bring  a  premium.     But  inferior,  poorly  graded  products 
are  discounted. 

The  advantages  to   the  producer  of  grading  products  are: 
(i)  it  increases  the  price;    (2)  it  stabilizes  and  creates  a  surer 


372  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

market ;  (3)  it  assures  greater  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  con- 
sumer ;  and  (4)  it  assures  many  sales  at  a  distance.  Unless  the 
products  are  graded  they  must  be  inspected  before  they  will  be 
purchased. 

4.  Quality  at  once  affects  the  selling  value  of  farm  products. 
The  sugar  mule  is  no  better  than  the  lumber  mule  except  in 
quality  and  action,  and  for  these  two  reasons  his  usefulness  is 
augmented  so  that  a  pair  of  sugar  mules  will  bring  $50  to  $100 
more  than  an  equally  good  pair  of  lumber  mules.  Quality  in 
eggs  means  the  best  market  price,  but  if  they  are  off  in  quality, 
they  are  decreased  in  value  20  to  50  per  cent.  The  annual  esti- 
mated loss  on  eggs  in  the  United  States  because  of  inferior  quality 
is  $45,000,000,  and  on  fowls  $75,000,000.  It  is  thought  by  some 
that  rotten  eggs  are  the  only  source  of  loss  to  the  farmer,  but  we 
should  remember  that  lack  of  quality  in  any  product  lowers  its  sell- 
ing value.  Wheat,  oats,  hay,  and  many  other  products  are  sold 
according  to  weight  and  quality.  If  a  bushel  of  wheat  weighed 
60  pounds,  but  was  moldy  because  of  getting  wet,  its  selling  price 
would  be  lowered  about  one  third,  and  in  many  cases  it  could  not 
be  sold  at  all  except  for  feeding  purposes.  Quality  in  seeds,  as 
shown  by  absence  of  foreign  seeds,  dirt,  sticks,  or  other  adulterant, 
is  a  powerful  factor  in  enhancing  their  selling  price.  Clover 
seeds  with  a  few  foreign  seeds  often  cannot  be  sold  at  all.  This 
is  a  direct  loss  to  the  farmer.  Wool  is  often  so  full  of  cockle- 
burs,  sticks,  weeds,  and  dirt  that  its  selling  price  is  cut  in  half 
or  more.  The  loser  in  each  case  is  the  farmer;  and  the  con- 
sumer's wants  are  not  satisfied.  From  5  to  15  per  cent  loss  to 
the  average  farmer's  income  is  inflicted  because  he  is  not  careful 
to  add  quality  to  the  products  he  sells. 

Everything  the  farmer  sells  is  immediately  classified  by  the 
purchaser.  The  price  of  eggs  throughout  the  summer  is  lower 
than  it  would  be  if  the  merchant  knew  that  all  the  eggs  he  pur- 


EFFICIENT   MARKETING   OF   FARM   PRODUCTS        373 

chased  were  fresh,  infertile,  and  superior  in  quality.  Wool, 
fruits,  grains,  and  every  other  product  sold  is  likewise  affected. 
In  some  products  the  quality  can  be  seen ;  in  some  it  cannot  be 
seen.  But  the  market  price  is  easily  known  and  should  stimulate 
farmers  to  market  a  better  quality  of  products. 

5.  Meeting  the  demands  of  the  market  is  important  in  market- 
ing farm  products.     The  wide  variation  of  prices  on  farm  products 
is  often  due  to  the  fact  that  no  attention  is  given  to  market 
demands.     On  the  same  day  prices  on  hogs  vary  as  much  as  2 
cents  a  pound ;   on  cattle  3  cents ;   and  on  sheep  4  cents.     The 
degree  of  finish  and  the  demand  of  the  market  cause  this  varia- 
tion.    Who  sustains  the  loss?     The  producer  sustains  most  of 
this  loss,  although  the  demands  of   the  consumer  are  probably 
not  met. 

6.  Cooperative  marketing  helps  probably  more  than  any  other 
single  factor  in  the  proper  distribution  of  farm  products.     A 
proper  distribution  helps  to  maintain   a  more  uniform  and  a 
higher  price  than  spasmodic  marketing  or  dumping  products 
upon  the  market  in  a  small  area.     There  are  plenty  of  farm  prod- 
ucts produced  in  the  United  States,  but  they  are  not  well  and 
uniformly  distributed  to  every  person  in  the  United  States. 
This  is  a  complex  problem  and  the  solving  of  it  deserves  the  best 
effort  and  intellect  of  the  farmers  and  people  of  the  entire  country. 

Summary.  —  Efficient  marketing  of  farm  products  is  essential 
to  both  producer  and  consumer.  Some  difficulties,  such  as  poor 
roads  and  other  poor  facilities  for  marketing,  geographical  varia- 
tion of  prices,  production  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  seasonal 
production  and  distribution,  interfere  with  efficient  marketing. 
On  the  other  hand  factors  that  aid  efficient  marketing  are: 
(i)  storage;  (2)  better  facilities  for  transportation;  (3)  classify- 
ing and  grading  the  product;  (4)  selling  a  quality  product; 
(5)  meeting  the  demands  of  the  market;  and  (6)  cooperative 


374  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

marketing.  Marketing  and  distributing  one  fifty-second  of  the 
entire  output  of  a  given  commodity  weekly  throughout  the  year 
will  do  much  to  accommodate  the  consumer  and  bring  profit  to 
the  producer. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND   HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Pupils  should  bring  a  written  report  of  some  cooperative  marketing 
organization  of  their  county  or  state,  giving  the  following  information: 
(a)   when  it  was  organized;    (b)   how  it  is  organized;    (c)   how  it  is  gov- 
erned ;   (d )  what  it  markets ;   (e)  how  it  classifies  its  product  and  on  what 
basis;  and  (/)  what  service  it  renders  to  the  farmers. 

2.  State  the  market  classes  and  grades  of  (i)   corn,   (2)    wheat,  and 
(3)  oats. 

3.  What  are  the  market  classes  and  grades  of  eggs? 


CHAPTER  XXV 


CARDINAL  POINTS  IN  MAKING  THE  FARM  PAY 

Major  factors  in  profitable  farming.  —  The  minor  points 
which  are  helpful  in  making  the  farm  successful  are :  fertile  soil, 
productive  plants,  good  markets,  proper  equipment,  and  a  co- 
operative community.  While  these  are  helpful  it  has  been  found 
in  farm  surveys  that  the  major  factors  essential  to  success  are : 
(i)  size  of  farm;  (2)  use  of  large  machinery;  (3)  efficient  use 
of  man  labor ;  (4)  crop  yields ;  (5)  reasonable  diversity ;  and 
(6)  the  farmer  himself. 

i.  Large  Farms.  It  is  at  once  evident  that  the  large  farm  has 
certain  advantages.  It  can  use  machinery,  also  man  and  horse 
labor  more  efficiently.  The  large  farm  requires  no  larger  house 
than  does  the  small  farm.  Capital  is  better  distributed  as  shown 
in  the  following  table : 

RELATION  OF  SIZE  OF  FARM  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CAPITAL 


SIZE  OF  FARMS 

PER  CENT  OF  TOTAL  CAPITAL  INVESTED 

Acres 

Land 

House 

Other  Buildings 

Live 
Stock 

Machinery 

Feed,  etc. 

40-100  . 

70.0 

IO.O 

6.0 

8.4     • 

2-5 

3-i 

IOI-I5O  . 

76.3 

6-3 

5-4 

7-8 

1.8 

2.4 

151-200  . 

80.3 

4-3 

3-9 

6.8 

1.9 

2.8 

2OI-250  . 

81.5 

3-4 

3-2 

7.0 

i-7 

3-2 

251-320  . 

82.7 

3-2 

4-7 

6.0 

i-3 

2.1 

Over  320  . 

83.5 

3-6 

2.7 

6.2 

i-3 

1.9 

375 


376 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


The  table  shows  that  the  farms  ranging  from  40  to  100  acres 
had  only  70  per  cent  of  all  the  capital  invested  in  land,  while 
farms  ranging  from  151  to  200  acres  had  over  80  per  cent  of  all 
their  capital  invested  in  land.  This  is  in  favor  of  the  large  farm 
because  land  is  productive  capital.  Farms  ranging  from  40  to 
100  acres  had  16  per  cent  of  their  capital  invested  in  buildings, 
while  the  farms  ranging  from  151  to  200  acres  had  only  8  per  cent 
so  invested.  This  is  in  favor  of  the  large  farm  because  buildings 
are  not  productive  capital.  There  is  always  a  higher  proportion 
of  money  invested  in  machinery  on  the  small  farm  than  on  a 
large  farm ;  and  the  machinery  on  a  small  farm  cannot  be  used 
for  as  many  days,  nor  as  efficiently  as  it  can  be  used  on  the  larger 
farm. 

2.  Large  farms  use  machinery  more  efficiently.  The  American 
farmer  produces  at  least  four  times  as  much  as  the  European 
farmer.  The  European  farmer  works  harder,  and  every 
member  of  the  family  works  in  the  field  with  shovel,  hoe,  and 
rake.  The  American  farmer,  in  contrast  to  the  European 
farmer,  drives  three  to  five  big  horses  and  uses  implements  to 
correspond  to  the  number  and  size  of  horses  used. 

As  a  basis  for  comparing  the  relative  efficiency  of  machinery 
on  large  and  small  farms  the  following,  taken  from  the  Census 
Report,  deserves  close  study. 

MACHINERY  ON  LARGE  AND  ON  SMALL  FARMS  IN  THE  ENTIRE  UNITED  STATES 


ACRES  FARMED 

VALUE  OF  MACHINERY 

INVESTMENT  IN  MACHINERY 

PER  ACRE 

Under  3  acres 

$53 

7-50 
2.16 
1.64 

3-    9  acres 
50-100  acres 
175-259  acres 

42 
106 

211 

CARDINAL   POINTS   IN   MAKING  THE   FARM   PAY     377 


Small  farms  usually  have  a  high  per  cent  of  money  invested 
in  machinery,  and  still  they  are  not  adequately  equipped  with 
machinery.  Furthermore,  machinery  on  large  farms  is  used  on 
a  much  larger  acreage. 

The  following  table  shows  how  the  improvement  of  machinery 
has  increased  the  economical  production  of  crops. 

COST  OF  PRODUCTION  BY  HAND  AND  BY  MACHINE  PER  ACRE 


YEARS  OF  PRODUCTION 

COST 

PER  CENT 

Hand 

Machine 

Hand 

Machine 

Decrease 

Corn,  40  bushels 

i  acre     .... 

1855 

l894 

$16.34 

$6.62 

59 

Wheat,  20  bushels 

i  acre      .... 

1829-1830 

1895-1896 

4.0O 

1.  12 

71 

Oats,  40  bushels 

i  acre     .... 

l830 

1893 

3.85 

1.  60 

58 

Hay,  i  ton 

i  acre     .... 

1850 

1895 

1.92 

0.63 

67 

Cotton,  750  pounds 

i  acre     .... 

1814 

1895 

6.15 

4.71 

23 

Potatoes,  2  20  bushels 

i  acre      .... 

1866 

1895 

13.18 

5-97 

54 

The  small  farm  has  much  more  hand  labor  than  the  large 
farm.  This  in  some  instances  means  a  doubling  of  the  cost  of 
production,  and  consequently  more  dim  cult  competition  for  the 
small  farmer. 

3.  On  large  farms  man  labor  is  used  more  efficiently.  A 
man  can  do  much  more  work  on  a  large  farm  and  do  it  more 
easily  than  on  a  small  farm.  The  following  table  shows  the 
relative  efficiency  of  man  labor  on  large  and  small  farms,  and  it 
deserves  careful  study. 


378 


LIVE   STOCK  AND   FARM   MECHANICS 


MAN  LABOR  MORE  EFFICIENT  ON  LARGE  FARMS 
(Nebraska  Bulletin  No.  157) 


AREA  OF  FARMS 
ACRES 

AVERAGE  LABOR 
INCOME  PER 
FARM 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER  OF  MEN 
PER  FARM 

AVERAGE  NUMBER 
OF  ACRES 
PER  MAN 

PRODUCTIVE  ANIMAL 
UNITS  PER  MAN 

4O-IOO 

$122 

I.  II 

58.5 

6.7 

101-150 
151-200      . 
201-250 

355 
322 
684 

I.I4 
I.38 
1.90 

90.0 
101.9 
IOI.2 

9-5 
10.9 

13-5 

251-320 
Over  320 

445 
324 

2.14 
2,6l 

II4.O 
II3-5 

11.9 
16.6 

On  farms  ranging  from  40  to  100  acres,  the  average  number  of 
acres  tilled  per  man  was  58.5  ;  but  on  farms  containing  over  320 
acres  one  man  tilled  113.5  acres  or  almost  twice  as  much. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  production  per  acre  on  the  small  farms 
is  two  or  three  times  as  great  as  it  is  on  the  large  farms.  The 
following  data  taken  from  extensive  surveys  will  indicate  that 
large  farms  produce  as  much  per  acre  as  do  small  farms. 

ACRE  CROP  YIELDS  ON  75  DAIRY  FARMS 
(New  Jersey  Bulletin  No.  321) 


AREA  OF  FARMS 

POTATOES 

CORN 

WHEAT 

RYE 

HAY 

CROP  ACRES  PER 
ANIMAL  UNIT 

Acres 

Barrels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Tons 

50  or  less 

44-5 

45-1 

13.2 

12.3 

1-3 

1.8 

51  to  ioo 

57-9 

44.6 

20.1 

17-5 

1.4 

3-i 

ioi  and  over 

59-6 

41.9 

19.7 

15-9 

1-3 

3-9 

The  bulletin  giving  these  figures  states  :  "  Farms  of  50  acres  or 
less  are  not  producing  so  good  yields  as  those  of  51  to  ioo  acres, 
while  the  yields  on  those  with  ioi  or  more  acres  are  not  quite  so 
good,  with  the  exception  of  potatoes.  For  these  dairy  farms  it 


CARDINAL  POINTS  IN   MAKING  THE   FARM   PAY     379 

appears  that  medium-sized  farms  yield  a  little  better  crop  per 
acre  than  farms  larger  or  smaller.  At  any  rate,  the  small  farms 
are  not  the  best  yielders.  The  difference  between  the  large  and 
the  medium-sized  farms  is  not  great." 

4.  Crop  yields.     This  general  statement  may  be  made :  Those 
farmers  who  produce  larger  crops  are  the  most  prosperous  farmers. 
Men  on  small  farms  often  spend  too  much  an  acre  to  secure 
profitable  returns.     Large  crop  yields  should  be  produced  as 
economically  as  possible.     Large  fields,   large  machinery,   the 
economic  use  of  motive  power,  and  a  fertile  soil  are  the  principal 
factors  in  economic  crop  production. 

It  costs  little  more  to  produce  60  bushels  an  acre  than  it  does 
to  produce  30  bushels.  But  the  cost  to  produce  a  bushel  of  pro- 
duce depends  almost  directly  on  the  yield  for  the  acre,  provided 
all  other  things  are  the  same.  Thus,  to  produce  30  bushels  of 
corn  an  acre  may  cost  at  the  rate  of  $i  a  bushel ;  but  if  60 
bushels  an  acre  are  produced,  the  cost  to  produce  a  bushel  is 
about  fifty  cents. 

Andrew  Boss  states  (Hoard's  Dairyman,  1919):  "  The  cost 
of  growing  large  crops  is  very  little  more  than  that  of  growing  an 
average  or  a  lower  than  average  crop.  Consequently  any  increase 
in  yields  over  the  average  is  almost  clear  profit." 

Now  let  us  get  to  the  specific  question  :  What  do  farm  surveys 
indicate  regarding  crop  yields  for  the  acre  in  relation  to  farm 
profits?  A  survey  made  of  668  farms  by  the  Missouri  Station 
(Bulletin  No.  140)  showed  the  relationship  between  crop  yields 
and  labor  income. 

The  table  on  page  380  shows  that  those  farms  having  a  crop  index 
of  110.4  had  a  labor  income  of  $999 ;  but  those  farms  having  a 
crop  index  of  92.3  had  a  labor  income  of  only  $227. 

5.  Diversity  of  enterprise.     The  old  saying,  "It  is  not  wise 
to  put  all  the  eggs  in  one  basket,"  applies  to  farming  in  general ; 


380  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 

CROP  YIELDS  AND  LABOR  INCOME 


AREA  OF 
FARM  IN  ACRES 

AVERAGE  SIZE 
OF  FARM  IN  ACRES 

NUMBER  OF 
FARMS 

CROP    INDEX1 

LABOR  INCOME 

40  or  less 

26.6 

47 

100.7 

$146 

41  to    80 

64.7 

149 

92.3 

227 

81  to  120 

103.3 

151 

93-9 

313 

121  tO  200 

159-2 

191 

IOI.2 

525 

201  tO  400 

243-5 

106 

102.5 

711 

Over    400 

459-6 

24 

110.4 

999 

for  the  farmer  who  carries  on  diversified  farming,  rather  than 
devoting  all  his  energies  to  one  thing,  invariably  succeeds  best. 

The  Michigan  Station  in  a  recent  survey  of  450  farms  furnishes 
some  interesting  facts  on  what  to  grow  and  how  much.  Accord- 
ing to  this  survey  the  most  profitable  farms  have  30  to  50  per 
cent  in  wheat,  i  to  10  per  cent  in  barley,  and  20  to  30  per  cent  in 
hay. 

Surveys  show  that  farmers  having  6  or  7  sources  of  income  have 
a  greater  labor  income  than  do  those  farmers  having  only  one 
or  two  sources  of  income.  The  following  table  illustrates  this. 
(United  States  Yearbook  of  Agriculture,  1913.) 

DIVERSIFICATION  INCREASES  CHANCES  FOR  A  LARGER  INCOME 


NUMBER  OF  YEARS 

DIVERSITY  INDEX 

AVERAGE  ACREAGE 

LABOR  INCOME 

27 

2  to  3 

93 

$287 

46 

3  to  4 

94 

418 

32 

4  to  5 

97 

436 

29 

Over  5 

93 

702 

1  Crop  index  is  based  upon  the  average  yield  per  acre.  Thus  a  crop  index  of 
92.3  means  that  the  yield  per  acre  on  that  farm  is  92.3  per  cent  of  the  average 
yield  of  the  crops  of  that  region. 


CARDINAL   POINTS   IN   MAKING  THE   FARM   PAY     381 

Twenty-seven  farms  having  2  to  3  sources  of  income  had  a  labor 
income  of  $287  ;  but  29  other  farms  of  the  same  size  having  over 
5  sources  of  income  returned  $702  as  a  labor  income. 

Briefly  stated  the  advantages  of  diversification  are  as  follows : 
(i)  It  enables  the  farmer  to  make  more  efficient  use  of  man  and 
horse  labor;  it  distributes  labor.  (2)  It  causes  the  farmer  to 
follow  a  systematized  scheme  of  crop  rotation  which  causes 
larger  yields,  and  produces  feeds  which  are  more  nearly  balanced. 


FIG.  164.  —  Some  essential  factors  which  are  helpful  in  making  the  farm  pay. 

(3)  It  enables  the  farmer  to  utilize  all  cheap  feeds  produced  on 
the  farm,  such  as  pasture  and  straw.  (4)  It  diminishes  risks  and 
increases  the  chances  to  make  money. 

6.  The  farmer  himself  as  a  factor  in  successful  farming. 
Industry,  thrift,  economy,  business  ability,  and  judgment  to 
do  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right  way  are  all 
very  important  factors  in  making  the  farm  a  success.  Some  men 
could  be  given  a  farm  of  the  right  size,  started  with  the  proper 
amount  of  capital,  shown  how  to  diversify  crops,  be  provided  with 
the  best  and  most  suitable  machinery,  and  yet  fail,  because  they 
lack  the  necessary  personal  qualities. 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


All  other  things  being  the  same,  surveys  show  that  an  education 
pays  on  a  farm  as  well  as  in  other  places  of  business.  We  quote 
the  following  data  on  the  worth  of  an  education  to  the  dairyman. 
(Missouri  Station  Bulletin  No.  140.) 

EDUCATION  OF  FARMER  AND  LABOR  INCOME 


SIZE  OF 
FARM 

EDUCATION 

NUMBER  OF 
FARMERS 

AVERAGE 
SIZE 

AVERAGE 
CAPITAL 

LABOR 
INCOME 

Acres 

41  to 

80 

District  school 
More  than  district  school 

143 
12 

Acres 
65.5 
65.5 

$5,475 
7,774 

$215 
317 

121  tO 

200 

District  school 
More  than  district  school 

140 

38 

157-2 

160.0 

12,768 

13,273 

490 
554 

2OI  tO 
4OO 

District  school 
More  than  district  school 

77 
25 

266.6 

261.8 

21,464 
22,174 

677 
1,176 

The  table  shows  conclusively  that  the  education  of  the  operator 
of  a  farm  is  a  factor  in  profitable  farming ;  for  in  every  case  where 
large  numbers  of  farmers  are  included  in  a  survey,  the  man 
with  more  than  a  common  school  education  has  a  larger  income 
than  has  the  man  who  has  only  a  common  or  district  school 
education. 

Summary.  —  There  are  many  factors  that  make  for  success 
in  farming.  The  most  important  factors  are:  (i)  size  of  the 
farm ;  larger  farms  being  more  profitable  than  small  ones ; 
(2)  use  of  large  machinery ;  (3)  efficient  use  of  man  labor ;  (4) 
crop  yields;  farmers  having  large  crop  yields  usually  have 
the  largest  labor  income;  (5)  diversity  of  enterprise:  since 
several  sources  of  income  insure  a  greater  and  surer  profit ;  and 
(6)  the  farmer  himself;  industry,  thrift,  economy,  judgment, 
and  an  education  are  qualities  which  make  for  the  successful 
operation  of  a  farm. 


CARDINAL   POINTS   IN   MAKING  THE   FARM   PAY     383 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  Visit  some  successful  farms,  and  determine  what  factors  make  them 
a  success  and  why.     Record  your  findings. 

2.  Bring  to  class  a  short  discussion  on  how  the  machinery  is  used  on 
some  farm,  other  than  the  one  visited  by  the  class. 


384  LIVE  STOCK  AND  FARM  MECHANICS 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

1.  Resolved,  That  hired  men  on  farms  should  receive  the  same  pay  for 
the  same  hours  that  men  receive  in  factories. 

2.  Resolved,  That  the  educational  opportunities  of  children  in  the  coun- 
try should  be  equal  to  those  enjoyed  by  the  boys  and  girls  in  town. 

3.  Resolved,  That  orcharding  is  more  profitable  than  dairying. 

4.  Resolved,  That  live-stock  farming  has  more  advantages  than  grain 
farming. 

5.  Resolved,  That  the  daylight-saving  law  is  to  the  best  interest  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States. 

6.  Resolved,  That  it  would  be  to  the  best  interest  of  the  farmers  for 
the  Government  to  own  and  operate  the  railroads. 

7.  Resolved,  That  the  present  number  of  middlemen  is  to  the  best  in- 
terest of  the  farmers  of  the  United  States. 

8.  Resolved,  That  corn  clubs  are  more  important  and  valuable  than 
are  sewing  and  cooking  clubs. 

9.  Resolved,  That  cooperation  is  of  greater  value  to  the  farmer  than 
competition. 

10.  Resolved,  That  the  dairy  cow  is  more  valuable  than  any  other  farm 
animal. 

11.  Resolved,  That  agriculture  should  be  the  center  and  core  of  the  course 
of  study. 

12.  Resolved,  That  the  Jersey  cow  is  more  beneficial  than  all  other  dairy 
breeds  combined. 

13.  Resolved,  That  farmers  should  market  one  fifty-second  of  their  prod- 
ucts weekly. 

14.  Resolved,  That  McCormick  rendered  more  service  to  mankind  than 
has  Edison. 

15.  Resolved,  That  the  National  Government  should  fix  the  price  of  farm 
products  and  guarantee  to  the  farmer  cost  of  production,  plus  a  reasonable 
profit. 

1 6.  Resolved,  That  it  is  fair  and  just  to  the  farmer  and  manufacturer 
and  middleman  for  each  to  receive  one  third  of  the   money  which   the 
consumer  pays  for  products  purchased. 

17.  Resolved,  That  it  is  to  the  best  interest  of  the  farmer  to  prohibit 
foreign  immigration  to  the  United  States. 


CARDINAL  POINTS  IN  MAKING  THE  FARM  PAY        385 

1 8.  Resolved,  That  wood  is  a  more  valuable  building  material  than  all 
other  building  materials  combined. 

19.  Resolved,  That  every  school  should  have  at  least  the  following  three 
community   gatherings,  —  (i)    a    Thanksgiving    program,    (2)   a    parent 
teachers  meeting,  and  (3)  a  school  fair. 

20.  Resolved,  That  efficient  farmers  should  receive  money  enough  for 
their  farm  products  to  enjoy  the  same  or  equal  conveniences  enjoyed  by 
city  people. 

Farm    papers,    bulletins,    books    and    magazines    may   be    used    for 
references. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GENERAL  AGRICULTURE 

Gehrs ;  Principles  of  Agriculture.     Macmillan. 
Bailey ;  School-Book  of  Farming.    Macmillan. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Craig;    Sheep  Farming.     Macmillan. 

Eckles  and  Warren ;  Dairy  Farming.     Macmillan. 

Eckles ;  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production.     Macmillan. 

Gay ;  Breeds  of  Live  Stock.     Macmillan. 

Harper;  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools.     Macmillan. 

Hogan;    The  Call  of  the  Hen.    American  School  of   Poultry  Husbandry, 

Mountain  Grove,  Mo. 
—  Standard  of  Perfection.    American    Poultry  Association,   Mansfield, 

Ohio. 

Lewis ;   The  Poultry  Keeper.     Lippincott. 
Plumb ;   Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  A  nimals  (Revised) .     Ginn. 
Watson ;  Farm  Poultry.     Macmillan. 

SOILS 

King ;   The  Soil.     Macmillan. 
Lyon ;  Soils  and  Fertilizers.     Macmillan. 
Vivian ;  First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility.     Orange  Judd. 
Whitson  and  Walster ;  Soils  and  Soil  Fertility.     Webb. 

FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Boss ;  Farm  Management.     Webb. 

Boyle;  Agricultural  Economics.     Lippincott. 

Ekblaw ;  Farm  Structures.     Macmillan. 

Macklin ;  Marketing  Farm  Products.     Macmillan. 

Taylor;  Agricultural  Economics.     Macmillan. 

Warren ;  Farm  Management.     Macmillan. 

LABORATORY  MANUAL 

Gehrs  and  James ;  One  Hundred  Exercises  in  Agriculture.     Macmillan. 

387 


INDEX 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle,  76-77 
Accounts  on  farms,  348 
Advanced  official  registry,  109 
Age  affecting  economy  of  fattening 

cattle,  80,  8 1 

sheep,  151 

swine,  130 
Animal  husbandry,  advantages  of,  3-13 

animals  are  manufactories,  7 

animals  help  to  distribute  labor,  8 

animals   help   in   making   nations   great, 
Q-IO 

animals  help  to  maintain  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  4 

animals  increase  profits,  8 

animals  utilize  cheap  feeds,  6 
Ash  in  feeds,  28,  29,  30,  35 
Ayrshire  cattle,  iio-m 

Babcock,  Dr.  S.  M. 

Babcock  test,  125 

Babcock  Tester,  125 

Method  of  making  Babcock  test,  125 

Portrait  of  Dr.  Babcock,  125 
Bathroom  equipment,  273 
Barns,  86,  301-311 
Bacon  types  of  hogs,  133 
Beef  cattle,  68-86 

beef  breeds,  72 

beef  cattle  in  the  World,  69 

beef  cuts,  71 

characteristics  of  beef  cattle,  69 

factors  in  economic  production,  78 

importance  of,  68 

number  in  the  United  States,  69 
Belgian  horse,  54 
Berkshire  hogs,  134 
Bog  spavin,  46 
Bone  spavin,  46 
Bookkeeping  on  the  farm,  348-354 

farm  inventory,  349 

farm  expenditures,  352 

farm  receipts,  350 

reasons  for  keeping  books,  348 

what  books  to  keep,  348 


Bot  fly,  47 

Boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  313-329 

club  program,  318 

club  singing,  323 

club  symbol,  328 

constitution  for,  316 

country  boy's  creed,  329 

essentials  for  success,  314 

exhibits,  319 

kinds  of  clubs,  324,  325 

plan  of  organization,  314 

prizes  and  contests,  320 

project  method,  323 

purpose,  313 

scope,  313 

social  side  of,  323 

standards  for,  315 
Butter,  29,  116,  117 

churning  temperature,  116 

composition  of,  116 
Buttermilk,  27,  129,  137,  181 


Call  of  the  Hen,  183 
Capped  elbow,  45 
Cattle 

See  Beef  cattle  and  Dairy  cattle 
Cement,  213-235 

history  of  cement,  213 

storing  cement,  223 
Cheese,  91,  in,  117 
Chickens,  158-196.     See  Poultry 

breeds  of,  160 

classes  of,  160 

diseases  of,  189 

egg  capacity  of  hens,  183 

egg  production,  165,  179,  181,  187 

housing  poultry,  167 

interior  fixtures  of  houses,  173 

meat  production,  164 

roup,  190 

scaly  leg,  190 

value  of  products,  160 
Clubs,  boys'  and  girls',  313-329 
Clydesdale  horse,  52 


389 


390 


INDEX 


Concrete,  213-235 

cost  of  concrete,  225 

curing  concrete,  222 

forms  for  concrete,  218 

how  to  make  concrete,  218 

mixing  concrete,  217 

proportions  of  aggregates,  216 

reenforcement  of  concrete,  220 

things  to  avoid  in  making  concrete,  214 

waterproofing  concrete,  211 
Concrete  construction,  225-235 

fence  posts,  226 

floors,  pavements,  and  sidewalks,  230 

foundations,  228 

miscellaneous  uses,  235 

silos,  231 
Conveniences  in  the  home,  250-275 

furnace  in  the  home,  264-266 

lighting  the  home,  266-268 

other  farm  home  conveniences,  268-274 

water  in  the  home,  259-263 
Cooperation,  206 

Cooperative  improvement  of  live  stock,  24 
Cooperative  marketing,  207 
Cotswold  sheep,  148 
Cruickshank,  Amos,  72 
Curb,  46 
Cuts  of  beef  cattle,  72 

Dairying,  87-125 

advantages  of,  90 

cost  of  milk  production,  111-114 

dairy  barn,  304 

importance  of  dairying,  87 

leading  dairy  states,  88 
Dairy  cattle,  87-125 

breeds  of  dairy  cattle,  101-111 

essentials  of  a  good  dairy  cow,  92 

records  of  dairy  cows,  103,  105,  no,  in, 

114 
Dairy  products 

butter,  29,  116,  117 

cheese,  91,  in,  117 

skim  milk,  27,  107,  114-116,  129,  137,  181 

whole  milk,  composition  of,  118 
Delaine  Merino,  148 
Digestible  composition  of  feeds,  27 
Distemper,  46 
Diversity  of  crops  in  making  the  farm  pay, 

37Q 

Dollar  fluctuates  in  value,  198 
Duroc  Jersey  hogs,  135 


Eckles,  C,  H.,  quoted,  10 
Efficiency  of  the  dairy  cow,  91 
Efficient  farming 

use  of  horse  labor,  355  ff. 

use  of  machinery,  276  ff.,  284  ff. 

use  of  man  labor,  355  ff. 
Egg  score  card,  194 
Eggs,  weight  per  dozen,  194 
Electric  light  in  the  home,  266-268 
Essentials  of  a  good  animal,  92 

Farm 

Cato's  advice,  331 

churches,  337 

factors  in  its  choice,  331 

farm  improvements,  332 

healthfulness,  335 

markets,  333 

roads,  333 

schools,  335,  337 

social  gatherings,  338 
Farm  bookkeeping,  348-354 

advantages  of,  348 

what  books  to  keep,  348  ff. 
Farm  buildings,  299—312 

dry  ness,  301 

economy  in  construction,  304 

essentials  in  buildings,  86,  301 

light,  302 

room,  301 

sanitation,  302 

ventilation,  302 
Farm  home,  299 
Farm  home  conveniences,  259-275 

fireless  cooker,  271 

force  pump,  261  ff . 

furnace  heat,  264  ff. 

light  in  home,  266  ff. 

need  of  home  conveniences,  259 

water  in  the  home,  261 
Farm  labor,  355-365 

causes  which  distribute  farm  labor,  363 

cost  of  farm  labor,  355,  357 

examples  of  constant  labor,  361 

factors  which  make  labor  efficient,  360,  364 
Feedings 

cattle,  80  ff.,  117 

chickens,  179 

horses,  60 

sheep,  154 

standards  of,  31  ff. 

swine,  130 


INDEX 


391 


Feeds,  26-37 

ash,  28-30,  35 

balancing  ration,  31 

composition,  27,  28,  29 

cost  of  feeds,  30 

digestibility  of  feeds,  27 

feeding  standards,  31 

function  of  feeds,  30 

nutritive  ratio,  33 

value  of  feeds,  32-35 
Fertility  in  animals,  5 
Fertility  in  plants,  4 
Fistulae,  45 
Fowls.     See  Chickens 

Galloway  cattle,  77-78 
Girls'  clubs,  313-329 
Grading  up  animals,  14 
Guernsey  cattle,  103-105 

Hackney  horse,  54-55 
Halter  pullers,  256 
Hambletonian  10,  pedigree  of,  17 
Hampshire  hogs,  137 
Hampshire  sheep,  149 
Harper,  M.  W.,  quoted,  43 
Heaves,  46 

Hereford  cattle,  75-76 
Hogan  test,  183 
Hog  cholera,  140-141 
Hogs.    See  Swine 
Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  105-110 
Horses,  38-68 

age  of  horses,  how  to  tell  it,  41-43 

blemishes  of  horses,  44-47 

breeds  of  horses,  50-55 

care  and  management  of  horses,  58 

coach  horses,  54 

draft  horses,  47 

factors     influencing     the     work     of     the 
horse,  58 

feeding  horses,  60 

horse  barn,  305 

horse  power  in  the  United  States,  38,  278 

light  horses,  55 

market  classes  of  horses,  201 

training  horses,  59 

Improvement  of  farm  animals,  14-25 
advantages  of  pure  breds,  18 
community    cooperation   in   animal    im- 
provement, 24 


grading  up  farm  animals,  14 
lines  of  improvement,  19 
.   meaning  of  pure  bred,  15 

Jersey  cattle,  100-102 
Judging  score  cards 

beef  cattle,  84 

dairy  cattle,  124 

eggs,  194 

farm  buildings,  312 

horses,  64,  66 

poultry,  194 

sheep,  156 

swine,  143  . 

Kleinheintz,  Prof.  Frank,  quoted,  152 

Labor  on  farms,  355-365 

Lambs,  economic  fatteners,  151 

Laramie,  Rambouillet  ram,  21 

Lard  types  of  hogs,  133 

Leading  hog  markets,  199 

Lines  of  live  stock  improvement,  19 

Leicester  sheep,  149 

Lewis,  Harry  R.,  quoted,  182 

Live  stock 

help  maintain  soil  fertility,  3,  4 
number  in  United  States,  38 
value  of  different  farm  animals,  38 

Machinery,  276-298 

care  of  machinery,  279 

economical  use  of,  281 

farm  labor  revolutionized,  276 

gasoline  engine,  290-292 

kinds  of  machinery,  277 

lubricating  machinery,  28* 

milking  machine,  292-297 

money  invested  in  machinery,  276 

neighborhood  ownership  of,  282 

plow,  evolution  of,  284 

power  used  in  the  United  States,  278 

tractors,  286-200 
Making  the  farm  pay,  375-383 

crop  yields,  379 

reasonable  diversity,  379 

size  of  farms,  375 

use  of  labor,  377 

the  farmer  himself,  381 
Mapping  the  farm,  340-347 
Market  classes  of  live  stock,  197-206 

cattle,  202 


392 


INDEX 


Market  classes  of  live  stock  —  continued 

eggs,  206 

hogs,  204 

horses,  201 

mules,  201 

poultry,  205 

sheep,  202 

wool,  203 
Marketing  live  stock,  194-211 

essentials  in  marketing,  197-210 

knowing  the  markets,  198 

marketing  unfinished  live  stock,  197 

uniform   distribution    of   live    stock    de- 
sirable, 366-368 
Meat  scraps,  27 
Merino  sheep,  148 
Milk 

average  composition,  115 

Babcock  test,  125 

digestible  nutrients,  27 

milk  from  different  breeds,  103-111 

records  of  production,  103-111 
Milking  machines,  292-297 

advantages,  292 

cleaning  the  machine,  296 

kinds,  297 

success  of,  293 
Missouri  Rioter  3d,  20 
Mules,  57,  201 

Neighbors,  335 
Nutritive  ratio,  31 

Oxford  sheep,  149 

Patterson,  C.  T.,  quoted,  179 
Percheron  horse,  50 
Planning  the  farm,  340-347 

advisability  of,  340 

essentials  of,  340 

factors  to  consider  in,  340 
Plow,  parts  of,  285 

use  of,  286 

Poland  China  hogs,  135 
Poll  evil,  44 
Poultry,  158-196 

feeds  for,  179 

Hogan  test,  183 

kinds  of  poultry,  160 

ration  for,  179 

varieties  of,  160 
Prices  of  farm  products  confusing,  197 


Prices  of  feeds,  36 
Profitable  farming,  375-383 
Protein  substances,  27,  30 
Pure  breds,  18-25 

advantages  of,  18 

definition  of,  15 

pure  breds  in  the  United  States,  25 

Quarter  cracks,  46 
Questions  for  debate,  384 

Rations 

for  cattle,  78,  117 

for  horses,  60 

for  poultry,  179 

for  sheep,  154 

for  swine,  137,  140 

standards  for,  31 
Registry  requirements,  109 
Replanning  farms,  340-347 
Ring  bone,  45 
Roads,  236-246 

benefits  of  good  roads,  236 

drainage  of  roads,  238 

easy  grades  of  roads,  238 

hard  surface  roads,  240-245 

location  of  roads,  238 

marking  roads,  245 

oiling  roads,  240 

road  drags,  239 

Rochdale  Pioneer  plan  for  Cooperation,  209 
Rope  work,  247-258 

importance  of  rope  work,  247 

kinds  of  knots,  250 

splicing  rope,  253 

useful  knots,  250-253 

whipping  rope,  248 

Sand  cracks,  46 
Scaly  leg,  190 
Score  cards 

beef  cattle,  84 

buildings,  312 

dairy  cattle,  125 

hogs,  143 

horses,  64,  66 

poultry,  192 

sheep,  158 
Scratches,  45 
Scrub  animals,  9,  14 
Sheep,  145-157 

barns  for,  309 


INDEX 


393 


breeds  of  sheep,  148,  150 

importance  of  sheep,  146 

relation  of  age  to  economic  fattening,  151 

score  card  for  sheep,  156 

sheep  in  the  World,  148 

sheep  states,  146 

shelter  for  sheep,  150 

some  facts  about  sheep,  150 

types  of  sheep,  150 

wild  sheep,  145 
Shire  horse,  53 
Shorthorn  cattle,  72 
Shropshire  sheep,  149 
Side  bone,  45 
Silage 

composition  of,  27 

concrete  silo,  231 

feeding  value,  27 

size  of  silos,  233 

Some  essential  machines,  284-292 
Southdown  sheep,  149 
Sophie  1 9th,  23 
Splints,  45 

"Standard  of  Perfection",  159,  191,  192 
Sweeny,  45 
Swine,  126-143 

advantages  of,  128 

"All  year  hog  pasture,"  130 

bacon  type,  133 

breeds  of  swine,  134 

diseases  of  swine,  140 

factors  in  economic  fattening,  1 29 

feeding  swine,  137 

hog  cholera,  140 


lard  type,  133 

leading  markets,  199 

rations  for  swine,  132 

relation  of  age  to  economic  production,  130 

tankage  for  swine,  138 

types  of  swine,  133 

Tankage,  133 
Thoroughbred  horses,  55 
Thoroughpin,  46 
Tractors,  286-292 

fuel  for,  290 

size  of  farm,  and  economy,  289 

use  of,  288 
Twenty  questions  for  debate,  384 

Unsoundnesses  of  horses,  44 

Use  of  machinery,  276-283,  284-298 

Value  of  farm  animals,  38 

Water 

amount  found  in  animal  bodies,  28 
function  of  water  in  animal  bodies,  30 
in  plants,  27 

When  products  are  marketed,  367-368 

White  clover,  composition  of,  27 

Wind  puffs,  46 

Wool,  21 

Young  animals  more  economical  feeders 
cattle,  80,  8 1 
sheep,  150 
swine,  130 


492044 


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